Psychosocial factors facilitating use of cognitive enhancing drugs in education : a qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes / Andrew Robert Heyes, Ian David Boardley

• Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 26 (2019) 4, p. 329-338
• DOI:10.1080/09687637.2019.1586831
• Special Issue: Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement

Abstract

Illicit use of prescription drugs (e.g. modafinil) to enhance academic performance – termed cognitive enhancement (CE) – is a legal, health, and ethical issue. Guided by Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, this study investigated whether student users of CE evidenced specific psychosocial mechanisms (i.e. mechanisms of moral disengagement) when explaining their reasons for CE. Following ethical approval from the lead author’s institution, in-depth-semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine students with experience of CE. Data were content analysed deductively, using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement; six of the eight mechanisms were identified through data analysis: diffusion of responsibility (DR), advantageous comparison (AC), distortion of consequences (DCs), displacement of responsibility, moral justification, and euphemistic labelling. In addition, inductive data analysis identified three further themes; self-medication, family and friends, and institutional position. Overall, the study findings suggest students may morally disengage to justify and rationalise use of CE to minimise negative emotional responses (e.g. guilt) that may be expected to result given the potential legal-, health-, and ethics-based deterrents to CE.

In September 2023 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf on World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Uzbek Athlete Farida Soliyeva after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Meldonium.

Following notification the Athlete timely admitted the violation, waived her right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU.

The Athlete explained that in March 2023 she had used Ripronate (Meldonium) capsuls without a prescription. Further she demonstrated with medical documents that in late March 2023 after consultation she had received Meldonium injections for her diagnosed condition.

The AIU deems that the Athlete failed to demonstrate that the violation was not intentional. Because she had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form she received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 8 April 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 13 September 2023.

In March 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Kennedy Cheboror. The AIU deemed that the Athlete had 3 Wherabouts Failures within a 12 month period:

• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 6 November 2023;
• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 28 November 2023;
• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 27 December 2023.

Although the Athlete submitted his explanations to the AIU the Whereabouts Failures were recorded. In any case the Athlete did not file a request for an adminstrative review.

Following notification the Athlete gave a timely admission, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. Furthermore he signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violation and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

The Athlete did not challenge the first and third Whereabouts Failures. Regarding the second Whereabouts Failures he asserted that his management had failed to change his Whereabouts information he had requested.

Therefore the AIU decides on 4 April 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 4 March 2024.

2022 Anti-Doping Testing Figures / World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). - Montreal : WADA, 2024

Contents:

• Executive Summary - pp. 2-9 (7 pages)
• Laboratory Report - pp. 10-39 (30 pages)
• Sport Report - pp. 40-155 (116 pages)
• Testing Authority Report - pp. 156-279 (124 pages)
• ABP Report-Blood Analysis - pp. 280-320 (41 pages)

Report Highlights:

• A 6.4% increase in the total number of samples (including urine, non-ABP blood and dried blood spot samples) analyzed and reported into ADAMS in 2022 (256,770) vs. 2021 (241,430); 

• An increase in the total percentage of AAFs year on year; 

• An increase in the total number of samples analyzed and reported by most WADA-accredited laboratories and WADA-approved laboratories into ADAMS in 2022 vs 2021. 

• An increase in the total number and percentage of non-ABP blood and DBS samples analyzed in 2022.  

• An increase of 1.4% in the number of ABP blood samples analyzed in 2022. 

• An increase in the total number of AAFs and % AAF for ERAs [including erythropoietin (EPO) and other EPO-receptor agonists], GHRFs and GC/C/IRMS tests in 2022.  

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has published its 2022 Testing Figures Report (2022 Report), which summarizes the results of all the samples WADA-accredited laboratories analyzed and reported in WADA’s Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS) in 2022. 

The 2022 Report – which includes an Executive Summary and sub-reports by Laboratory, Sport, Testing Authority and Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) Blood Analysis – includes in- and out-of-competition urine samples, blood and ABP blood data, and the resulting Adverse Analytical Findings (AAFs) and Atypical Findings (ATFs). 

In September 2022 the International Equestrian Federation (FEI) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Polish rider Katarzyna Milczarek after her sample tested positive for Testosterone and its metabolites.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete filed a statement in her defence and the FEI tribunal rendered a decision based on the written submissions of the Parties.

The Athlete gave a prompt admission, denied the intentional use of the substance and requested for a reduced sanction. She explained with evidence that the source of the postive test was her medication she had used as treatment for her diagnosed condition.

The Athlete asserted that she had mentioned her medication on the Doping Control Form and that prior she had not received anti-doping education. She was unaware that this medication contained a prohibited substance, neither that she needed a valid TUE.

The Athlete made an application for a retrospective TUE for Prasterone. However this application was denied in February 2023 due to the medication was deemed not appropriate as treatment for her condition.

FEI accepted that the Athlete's violation was not intentional and that she had demonstrated with evidence how the prohibited substance had entered her system. Following assessment of the Athlete's conduct and the filed evidence FEI determines that she acted with No Significant Fault or Negligence.

The Panel agrees that the Athlete's violation was not intentional. Further the Panel concludes that she acted with No Significant Fault or Negligence and that there are grounds for a reduced sanction.

Therefore the FEI Tribunal decides on 11 March 2024 to impose only a 16 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 27 September 2022.

In February 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf on World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Winnie Jemutai Boinett after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Testosterone and its metabolites.

Following notification the Athlete timely admitted the violation, waived her right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. The Athlete explained that she had received several medical treatments in hospitals for her injury without having corroborating documents.

The AIU deems that the Athlete failed to demonstrate that the violation was not intentional. Because she had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form she received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 11 March 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 29 February 2024.

In September 2023 United Kingdom Anti-Doping (UKAD) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the rugby player Jack Little after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Higenamine. Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered.

The Athlete admitted the violation, denied the intentional use of the substance and disputed the sanction proposed by UKAD. Thereupon he accepted the sanction and waived his right for a hearing.

The Athlete explained that he had used a recommended supplement Shredabull Untamed 2.0, purchased from a sports nutrition store. He asserted that Higenamine was not mentioned on the bottle label as ingredient, yet instead mentioned as nandina domestic extract.

in view of the evidence UKAD accepted that the Athlete's violation was not intentional, yet deems that he acted with some degree of negligence. Further UKAD considers that prior he had not received any anti-doping education.

Therefore UKAD decides on 8 March 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 29 September 2023.

In February 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf on World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Norbert Kigen after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Testosterone and its metabolites.

Following notification the Athlete timely admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU.

The AIU deems that the Athlete failed to demonstrate that the violation was not intentional. Because he had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form he received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 8 March 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 27 February 2024.

In December 2023 and in January 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported 2 anti-doping rule violations against the Bahrain Kenyan Athlete Rosemary Mumo Katua. The AIU established that her two samples, provided in October and in November 2023, tested positive for the prohibited substance Triamcinolone acetonide.

Previously the Athlete was sanctioned for 3 years until December 2020 for the presence in her sample of the banned substance Nandrolone.

Following the two notifications in December 2023 and in January 2024 the Athlete timely admitted both violations, waived her right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. The Athlete also filed an application for a retroactive TUE, yet this was denied due to her application was returned to the Athlete as incomplete.

The AIU finds that the Athlete had committed a second anti-doping rule violation and that both reported violations shall be considered as one single anti-doping rule violation. Further the AIU considers that the Athlete's violation was not intentional and that she timely had admitted both reported violations.

Therefore the AIU decides on 7 March 2024 to impose a reduced 4 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the first admission, i.e. 19 December 2023.

In February 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kazakh Kenyan Athlete Caroline Chepkoech Kipkirui. The AIU deemed that the Athlete had 3 Whereabouts Failures within a 12 month period:

• a Filing Failure on 9 February 2023;
• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 19 June 2023; and
• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 27 November 2023.

Although the Athlete submitted her explanations to the AIU the Whereabouts Failures were recorded. In any case the Athlete did not file a request for an adminstrative review.

Following notification the Athlete gave a timely admission, waived her right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. Furthermore she signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violation and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

Therefore the AIU decides on 7 March 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 21 February 2024.