Benefits and Harms of 'Smart Drugs' (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals

Benefits and Harms of 'Smart Drugs' (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals / Fabrizio Schifano, Valeria Catalani, Safia Sharif, Flavia Napoletano, John Martin Corkery, Davide Arillotta, Suzanne Fergus, Alessandro Vento, Amira Guirguis

  • Drugs 82 (2022) 6 (2 April), p. 633-647
  • PMID: 35366192
  • DOI: 10.1007/s40265-022-01701-7

Erratum in:

  • Correction to: Benefits and Harms of 'Smart Drugs' (Nootropics) in Healthy Individuals / Fabrizio Schifano, Valeria Catalani, Safia Sharif, Flavia Napoletano, John Martin Corkery, Davide Arillotta, Suzanne Fergus, Alessandro Vento, Amira Guirguis
  • Drugs 82 (2022) 7 (May) p. 839
  • PMID: 35476318
  • DOI: 10.1007/s40265-022-01716-0
  • No abstract available.


Abstract

'Smart drugs' (also known as 'nootropics' and 'cognitive enhancers' [CEs]) are being used by healthy subjects (i.e. students and workers) typically to improve memory, attention, learning, executive functions and vigilance, hence the reference to a 'pharmaceutical cognitive doping behaviour'. While the efficacy of known CEs in individuals with memory or learning deficits is well known, their effect on non-impaired brains is still to be fully assessed. This paper aims to provide an overview on the prevalence of use; putative neuroenhancement benefits and possible harms relating to the intake of the most popular CEs (e.g. amphetamine-type stimulants, methylphenidate, donepezil, selegiline, modafinil, piracetam, benzodiazepine inverse agonists, and unifiram analogues) in healthy individuals. CEs are generally perceived by the users as effective, with related enthusiastic anecdotal reports; however, their efficacy in healthy individuals is uncertain and any reported improvement temporary. Conversely, since most CEs are stimulants, the related modulation of central noradrenaline, glutamate, and dopamine levels may lead to cardiovascular, neurological and psychopathological complications. Furthermore, use of CEs can be associated with paradoxical short- and long-term cognitive decline; decreased potential for plastic learning; and addictive behaviour. Finally, the non-medical use of any potent psychotropic raises serious ethical and legal issues, with nootropics having the potential to become a major public health concern. Further studies investigating CE-associated social, psychological, and biological outcomes are urgently needed to allow firm conclusions to be drawn on the appropriateness of CE use in healthy individuals.

Parameters

Science
Research / Study
Date
27 April 2022
People
Arillotta, Davide
Catalani, Valeria
Corkery, John Martin
Fergus, Suzanne
Guirguis, Amira
Napoletano, Flavia
Schifano, Fabrizio
Sharif, Safia
Vento, Alessandro
Country
Italy
United Kingdom
Language
English
Other organisations
Addictions’ Observatory (ODDPSS)
Azienda Sanitaria Locale Roma 2 (ASL Roma 2) - Local Health Authority, Italy
East London Foundation Trust (ELFT)
Swansea University
Università Degli Studi Guglielmo (UniMarconi) - Guglielmo Marconi University (GMU)
University of Hertfordshire (UOH)
Doping classes
S6. Stimulants
Medical terms
Addiction / dependence
Health / performance effects
Substance use research
Various
CE
cognitive enhancers
Document category
Scientific article
scientific publication
Document type
Online
Date generated
29 July 2024
Date of last modification
1 November 2024
Category
  • Legal Source
  • Education
  • Science
  • Statistics
  • History
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  • Country
  • Language
Other filters
  • ADRV
  • Legal Terms
  • Sport/IFs
  • Other organisations
  • Laboratories
  • Analytical aspects
  • Doping classes
  • Substances
  • Medical terms
  • Various
  • Version
  • Document category
  • Document type
Publication period
Origin