Predicting intentions for long-term anabolic-androgenic steroid use among men : a covariance structure model / Tom Hildebrandt, James Langenbucher, Sasha Carr, Pilar Sanjuan, Steff Park. - (Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 20 (2006) 3 (September); p. 234-240)

• PMID: 16938061
• DOI: 10.1037/0893-164X.20.3.234

Abstract

Long-term use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) is associated with both positive and negative effects. The authors examined possible mechanisms by which these effects contribute to AAS satisfaction and predict intentions for future AAS use. Five hundred male AAS users completed an interactive Web-based instrument assessing the psychological and physical effects of AAS use. Covariance structure modeling was used to evaluate both direct and indirect effects of AAS consequences on satisfaction with AASs and intentions for future AAS use. Results suggest that gain in muscle mass and psychological benefits from AAS use uniquely contributed to both AAS satisfaction and intentions for future use. Side effects from AAS use also uniquely contributed to AAS satisfaction, but ancillary drug use was found to partially mediate this relationship, suggesting that the satisfaction of experienced AAS users is enhanced by their mastery of side effects through the use of ancillary drugs. The final model explained 29% of the variance in intentions for future AAS use. Mechanisms for sustained AAS use and implications for intervention and prevention strategies are discussed.

Predictors of doping intentions, susceptibility, and behaviour of elite athletes : a meta‑analytic review / Cornelia Blank, Martin Kopp, Martin Niedermeier, Martin Schnitzer, Wolfgang Schobersberger. - (SpringerPlus 5 (2016) 1333 (11 August) : p. 1-14)

• PMID: 27563528
• PMCID: PMC4980857
• DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-3000-0

Abstract

Research in doping has focused on potential intervention strategies, increasingly targeting predicting factors. Yet, findings are inconsistent, mostly athlete-centred and explain only limited variances in behaviour. This critical review aims to (a) summarize studies that identified predictors of doping intentions, susceptibility, and behaviour in elite athletes and to (b) analyse in how far previous research included aspects beyond athlete-centred approaches, such as context and sporting culture. We reviewed 14 studies that focused on elite athletes.
Situational temptation, attitudes, and subjective norms seem to be strong predicting variables of doping intentions (r ≥ 0.50), but intention was no predictor for behaviour. Attitudes were a significant predictor for both, doping susceptibility (r = 0.47) and behaviour (r = 0.30). Most of the predictors are athlete-centred and ignore macro-level factors that might help to explain how certain individual traits impact on the decision making process. The findings from this review call for a critical discussion of whether current doping-prevention research needs to take new directions. We propose future research to bridge findings of psychologists and sociologists, as it appears that doping behaviour cannot be explained by ignoring the one or the other. Impacts of sporting culture that have been identified in qualitative approaches need to be integrated in future quantitative approaches to test for its external validity. Inclusion of both, micro- and macro level factors may enable an integrative prevention program that creates a sporting culture without doping.

Wichstrøm L.
Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006 Sep;38(9):1578-83.
Norwegian Social Science, Oslo, Norway. lars.wichstrom@svt.ntnu.no

PURPOSE:
To prospectively study the stability of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use and predictors of AAS use, and to investigate whether AAS use alters the risk of later emotional and behavioral problems.

METHODS:
Survey of a national sample of Norwegian high school students (age 15-19) in 1994 followed up in 1999 (N = 2924). Measures of frequent alcohol intoxication (50+ times per 12 months), cannabis use (12 months), hard drug use (12 months), being offered cannabis, eating problems, conduct problems, sexual debut before age 15, BMI, involvement in power sports, perceived physical appearance, and satisfaction with body parts were obtained.

RESULTS:
Life-time prevalence of AAS use were 1.9 and 0.8% in the follow-up period. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that future AAS use was predicted by young age, male gender, previous AAS use, involvement in power sports, and frequent alcohol intoxication. AAS use did not predict future emotional or behavioral problems other than reducing the risk of future frequent alcohol intoxication.

CONCLUSION:
Frequent alcohol intoxication and involvement in power sports appear to predict future AAS use. At the population level there was little stability in individual AAS use from adolescence to early adulthood. No detrimental effects of AAS use could be detected in this study, but low statistical power limits this conclusion.

PMID:
16960518
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Preliminary data on the potential for unintentional antidoping rule violations by permitted cannabidiol (CBD) use / Ute Mareck, Gregor Fusshöller, Hans Geyer, Marilyn A. Huestis, Anja B. Scheiff, Mario Thevis. - (Drug Testing and Analysis 13 (2021) 3 (March); p. 539-549)

• PMID: 33125823
• DOI: 10.1002/dta.2959

Abstract

According to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) regulations, cannabinoids use is prohibited in competition except for cannabidiol (CBD) use. For an adverse analytical finding (AAF) in doping control, cannabinoid misuse is based on identification of the pharmacologically inactive metabolite 11-nor-delta-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (carboxy-THC) in urine at a concentration greater than 180 ng/ml. All other (minor) cannabinoids are reported as AAF when identified, except for CBD that has been explicitly excluded from the class of cannabinoids on WADA's Prohibited List since 2018. However, due to the fact that CBD isolated from cannabis plants may contain additional minor cannabinoids, the permissible use of CBD can lead to unintentional violations of antidoping regulations. An assay for the detection of 16 cannabinoids in human urine was established. The sample preparation consisted of enzymatic hydrolysis of glucuronide conjugates, liquid-liquid extraction, trimethylsilylation, and analysis by gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Spot urine samples from CBD users, as well as specimens obtained from CBD administration studies conducted with 15 commercially available CBD products, were analyzed, and assay characteristics such as selectivity, reproducibility of detection at the minimum required performance level, limit of detection, and limit of identification were determined. An ethical committee approved controlled single dose commercially available CBD products administration study was conducted to identify 16 cannabinoids in urine samples collected after ingestion or application of the CBD products as well as their presence in spot urine samples of habitual CBD users. Variable patterns of cannabinoids or their metabolites were observed in the urine samples, especially when full spectrum CBD products were consumed. The presence of minor cannabinoids or their metabolites in an athlete's in-competition urine sample represents a substantial risk of an antidoping rule violation.

Preservation of GHRH and GH-releasing peptide-2 efficacy in young men with experimentally induced hypogonadism / Johannes D. Veldhuis, Daniel M. Keenan, Joy N. Bailey, John M. Miles, Cyril Y. Bowers

• European Journal of Endocrinology 161 (2009) 2 (August), p. 293-300
• PMID: 19458139
• PMCID: PMC2772823
• DOI: 10.1530/EJE-09-0270

Abstract

Background: Somatostatin (SS), GHRH, GH-releasing peptide (GHRP), and the sex-steroid milieu regulate GH secretion.

Objective: To test whether GHRH and GHRP remain effective secretagogs in the face of short-term hypogonadism.

Design: Prospective, randomized double-blind.

Methods: Healthy young men (n=24) received a GnRH agonist twice 3 weeks apart followed by placebo (n=13, Pl) or testosterone (n=11, testosterone) addback.

Subjects: were then given consecutive i.v. infusions of l-arginine (to restrain SS outflow) and a maximally effective dose of GHRH or GHRP-2 (to test corresponding secretagog pathways).

Results: GH secretion stimulated by l-arginine/GHRH and by l-arginine/GHRP-2 was unaffected by combined testosterone/estradiol (E(2)) depletion. The low testosterone/E(2) milieu decreased basal (nonpulsatile) GH secretion (P=0.038), without altering fasting pulsatile GH secretion or IGF1 or IGF-binding protein (IGFBP)-3 concentrations. IGFBP-1 (P<0.0001) and abdominal visceral fat (AVF, P=0.017) correlated negatively with fasting basal GH secretion. By contrast, IGF1 (P=0.0012) and IGFBP-3 (P=0.015) correlated positively with fasting pulsatile GH secretion. AVF (P=0.0024) was a negative determinant, and IGF1 a positive determinant (P=0.018), of GHRH-driven GH pulses. Responses to GHRP-2 were unrelated to any of these factors.

Conclusion: l-arginine/GHRP-2 appears to be an especially robust stimulus of GH secretion, since efficacy is unmodified by profound short-term hypogonadism, a range of AVF estimates, and a spectrum of IGF1, IGFBP-1, and IGFBP-3 concentrations. Whether robustness also applies to chronic hypogonadism is not known.

Prevalence and correlates of anabolic-androgenic steroid use in a nationally representative sample of 17-year-old Norwegian adolescents / Dominic Sagoe, Cecilie Schou Andreassen, Helge Molde, Torbjørn Torsheim, Ståle Pallesen. - (Substance Use & Misuse 50 (2015) 2; 139-147)

• PMID: 25265519
• DOI: 10.3109/10826084.2014.958859

Abstract

Background: Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use has been identified as a serious public health problem.

Objectives: This study investigates the prevalence and correlates of AAS use among Norwegian adolescents.

Methods: In 2012, a nationally representative sample of 2,055 17-year-old adolescents (963 males and 1,088 females) participated in a survey. The response rate was 70.4%. In addition to questions about AAS use, participants completed the Parental Monitoring Scale, the Family Relations/Cohesion Scale, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test C, the Mini-International Personality Item Pool-Five-Factor Model, the Eysenck Narrow Impulsiveness Subscale, the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking, the Short-Form Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and the UCLA Loneliness Scale. They also answered questions about demography, gambling, smoking, snus, and narcotic use. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were used to analyze the data.

Results: The lifetime prevalence of AAS use was 0.30% (0.52% in males and 0.09% in females), while current prevalence was 0.25%. Moreover, 19.39% of the sample reported having an acquaintance who used or had used AAS. Having an acquaintance who used or had used AAS was significantly related to snus use, depression, aggression, extraversion, and conscientiousness in both univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.

Conclusions/Importance: Our findings suggest a high prevalence of AAS use among Norwegian adolescents and denote the significance of social, personality, and health factors in adolescents' exposure to AAS milieu.

Prevalence and profile of users and non-users of anabolic steroids among resistance training practitioners / Ericson Pereira, Samuel Jorge Moyses, Sérgio Aparecido Ignácio, Daniel Komarchewski Mendes, Diego Sgarbi D.A. Silva, Everdan Carneiro, Ana Maria Trindade Grégio Hardy, Edvaldo Antônio Ribeiro Rosa, Patrícia Vida Cassi Bettega, Aline Cristina Batista Rodrigues Johann. - (BMC Public Health 19 (2019) 1650 (9 December)

• PMID: 31818274
• PMCID: PMC6902556
• DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-8004-6

Abstract

Background: To verify the prevalence and profile of users and non-users of anabolic steroid (AS) among resistance training practitioners.

Methods: An observational, cross-sectional survey was performed in 100 gyms in Curitiba city, involving 5773 individuals and self-administered questionnaires. The chi-square and z-tests of proportions were used for comparison between the groups (p < 0.05).

Results: 83.2% did not use, 9.1% formerly used, 3.4% currently used, and 4.3% intended used AS. The prevalence of former or current AS users was 16.9 and 6.5% among men and women, respectively. The prevalence ratios were as follows: 1) 2.6 male users for each woman; 2) 3.3 individuals aged 30-44 years and 2.8 individuals aged 18-29 years for each individual aged over 45 years. Beginners were not interested in using AS, but individuals who had trained longer had higher prevalence of AS use.

Conclusions: The gym environment encouraged the use of AS owing to aesthetic appeal. Thus, suggesting the need for actions to prevent abusive use of AS considering the practitioners profile (practitioners were young, university and single).

Prevalence estimate of blood doping in elite track and field at the introduction of the Athlete Biological Passport /
Raphael Faiss, Jonas Saugy, Alix Zollinger, Neil Robinson, Frédéric Schütz, Martial Saugy, Pierre-Yves Garnier. - (BioRxiv (2019) 19 Aug).
- doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/736801

Abstract

In elite sport, the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) was invented to tackle cheaters by monitoring closely changes in biological parameters, flagging atypical variations. The haematological module of the ABP was indeed adopted in 2011 by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF). This study estimates the prevalence of blood doping based on haematological parameters in a large cohort of track & field athletes measured at two international major events (2011 & 2013 IAAF World Championships) with a hypothesized decrease in prevalence due to the ABP introduction.
A total of 3683 blood samples were collected and analysed from all participating athletes originating from 209 countries. The estimate of doping prevalence was obtained by using a Bayesian network with seven variables, as well as “doping” as a variable mimicking doping with low-doses of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO), to generate reference cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) for the Abnormal Blood Profile Score (ABPS) from the ABP.
Our results from robust haematological parameters indicate an estimation of an overall blood doping prevalence of 18% in average in endurance athletes (95% Confidence Interval (C.I.) 14-22%). A higher prevalence was observed in female athletes (22%, C.I. 16-28%) than in male athletes (15%, C.I. 9-20%).
In conclusion, this study presents the first comparison of blood doping prevalence in elite athletes based on biological measurements from major international events that may help scientists and experts to use the ABP in a more efficient and deterrent way.

Prevalence Estimate of Blood Doping in Elite Track and Field Athletes During Two Major International Events / Raphael Faiss, Jonas Saugy, Alix Zollinger, Neil Robinson, Frédéric Schütz, Martial Saugy, Pierre-Yves Garnier. - (Frontiers in Physiology (2020) 25 February; p. 1-11).
- doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00160

Abstract:

In elite sport, the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) was invented to tackle cheaters by monitoring closely changes in biological parameters, flagging atypical variations. The hematological module of the ABP was indeed adopted in 2011 by World Athletics (WA). This study estimates the prevalence of blood doping based on hematological parameters in a large cohort of track and field athletes measured at two international major events (2011 and 2013 WA World Championships) with a hypothesized decrease in prevalence due to the ABP introduction. A total of 3683 blood samples were collected and analyzed from all participating athletes originating from 209 countries. The estimate of doping prevalence was obtained by using a Bayesian network with seven variables, as well as “blood doping” as a variable mimicking doping with lowdoses of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO), to generate reference cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) for the Abnormal Blood Profile Score (ABPS) from the ABP. Our results from robust hematological parameters indicate an estimation of an overall blood doping prevalence of 18% in 2011 and 15% in 2013 (non-significant difference) in average in endurance athletes [95% Confidence Interval (CI) 14–22 and 12–19% for 2011 and 2013, respectively]. A higher prevalence was observed in female athletes (22%, CI 16–28%) than in male athletes (15%, CI 9–20%) in 2011.
In conclusion, this study presents the first comparison of blood doping prevalence in elite athletes based on biological measurements from major international events that may help scientists and experts to use the ABP in a more efficient and deterrent way.

Prevalence of 'health supplement' use and androgenic anabolic steroid abuse among athletes in Jammu and Kashmir / Khawar Khan, Rabbanie Tariq Wani, Najeeb Rasool. - (International Journal of Advanced Research 6 (2018) 11 (November); p. 70-74).
- DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/7973

Introduction:
The use of anabolic steroids and the health supplements by athletes has been increasing over last few decades. The health risks associated with the use of them makes it necessary to study the patterns and prevalence of such behavior.

Aim:
To study the prevalence of Health Supplement and androgenic anabolic steroid use among the athletes in Jammu and Kashmir Methods and materials: Gyms were randomly selected over Jammu and Kashmir and the athletes were made to fill in the questionnaires after proper instruction by the investigator, the questionnaires with discrepancies and inadequacy were left out.

Results:
The study enrolled 214 athletes, both men and women all over J&K. The mean age of the participants was 26.98. The prevalence of health supplement use was 38.32% which mainly included protein based supplements, the prevalence of androgenic anabolic steroid use was 7.1%.

Conclusion:
There is high prevalence of health supplement use among the athletes in Jammu and Kashmir, the prevalence of steroid abuse was also considerable. There is an urgent need for education of athletes about the potential risks of indulging in such behaviour.