Smart Drugs and Synthetic Androgens for Cognitive and Physical Enhancement : Revolving Doors of Cosmetic Neurology / Paola Frati, Chrystalla Kyriakou, Alessandro Del Rio, Enrico Marinelli, Gianluca Montanari Vergallo, Simona Zaami, Francesco P. Busardò. - (Current Neuropharmacology 13 (2015) 1 (January); p. 5-11).

• DOI: 10.2174/1570159X13666141210221750.
• PMCID: PMC4462043.
• PMID: 26074739

Abstract:

Cognitive enhancement can be defined as the use of drugs and/or other means with the aim to improve the cognitive functions of healthy subjects in particular memory, attention, creativity and intelligence in the absence of any medical indication. Currently, it represents one of the most debated topics in the neuroscience community. Human beings always wanted to use substances to improve their cognitive functions, from the use of hallucinogens in ancient civilizations in an attempt to allow them to better communicate with their gods, to the widespread use of caffeine under various forms (energy drinks, tablets, etc.), to the more recent development of drugs such as stimulants and glutamate activators.
In the last ten years, increasing attention has been given to the use of cognitive enhancers, but up to now there is still only a limited amount of information concerning the use, effect and functioning of cognitive enhancement in daily life on healthy subjects. The first aim of this paper was to review current trends in the misuse of smart drugs (also known as Nootropics) presently available on the market focusing in detail on methylphenidate, trying to evaluate the potential risk in healthy individuals, especially teenagers and young adults. Moreover, the authors have explored the issue of cognitive enhancement compared to the use of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) in sports. Finally, a brief overview of the ethical considerations surrounding human enhancement has been examined.

Social Media, Body Image and Resistance Training : Creating the Perfect 'Me' with Dietary Supplements, Anabolic Steroids and SARM's / Luuk Hilkens, Maarten Cruyff, Liesbeth Woertman, Jeroen Benjamins, Catharine Evers. - (Sports Medicine - Open 7 (2021) 1 (10 November); 81)

• PMID: 34757466
• PMCID: PMC8579410
• DOI: 10.1186/s40798-021-00371-1

Abstract

Background: Few studies have assessed the use of dietary supplements, anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and selective androgen receptor modulators (SARM) in male gym users. The comparison of physical appearance with others on social media and the exposure to fitness-related content on social media (i.e., image-centric social media use) may have a profound role in using these compounds due to its role in creating negative body images in male gym users.

Objective: Provide contemporary data on the use of dietary supplements, AAS and SARM among young male gym users, and test the hypothesis that social media is associated with the use of dietary supplements, AAS and SARM, as a result of a negative body image.

Methods: In this cross-sectional study, conducted in the Netherlands, male gym users (N = 2269; 24 ± 6 years) completed an online questionnaire including self-reported measures regarding resistance training participation, image-centric social media use, dietary supplement intake, and body image. The prevalence of AAS and SARM use was assessed with randomized response, a technique to ask sensitive questions indirectly.

Results: Of all participants, 83% used ergogenic dietary supplements (mainly protein and creatine), and an estimated 9 versus 2.7% had ever used AAS versus SARM. Image-centric social media use was positively associated with the use of dietary supplements (r = .26; p < 0.01) and AAS (p < 0.05), but not SARM. Image-centric social media use was associated with a more dissatisfied body image (r = .34; p < 0.01). Body image did not mediate the relationship between image-centric social media use and the use of doping compounds.

Conclusions: The use of dietary supplements in young male gym users is exorbitant, with the use of AAS and SARM being substantial. Image-centric social media use is positively associated with the use of dietary supplements and AAS.

Social psychological determinants of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by gym users / C. H. Wiefferink, S. B. Detmar, B. Coumans, T. Vogels and T. G.W. Paulussen. - (Health Education Research 23 (2008) 1 (13 February) p. 70-80)

• PMID: 17301058
• DOI: 10.1093/her/cym004

The aim of this study is to identify the social psychological determinants of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by gym users who practice bodybuilding, fitness, powerlifting or combat sports. In this questionnaire-based study, 144 respondents answered questions on their actual use and intention to use such drugs and also on their background characteristics and beliefs, such as their attitudes, social influences and self-efficacy. While all social psychological determinants correlated with intention to use these drugs, the most important predictors were personal norms, beliefs about performance outcomes and the perceived behavior of others. Non-users held more restrictive norms about using performance-enhancing drugs, were less optimistic about the performanceenhancing outcomes and believed that fewer significant others used performance-enhancing drugs than users and ex-users. The results of this study indicate that users attribute advantages to performance-enhancing drugs and are inclined to overlook the risks of using them. Preventive interventions should focus on influencing personal norms and social processes.

Social Psychology within the anti-doping area Baseline statistics and profiles of athletes’ attitude and knowledge An empirical presentation / Göran Svedsäter, Ingemar Wedman

An important objective of the project was to recognize if there are any special attitudes and knowledge profiles between the target groups.

Even though the selection and thereby the database became somewhat smaller than planned, the analyses reveal some interesting tendencies and finds.

The questionnaire confirms that significant differences exist in relation to the age groups junior and senior. This concerns all areas such as attitudes, subjectively experienced knowledge and what is regarded as important in relation to the fight against doping in sport.

In addition, it will be seen that ”region“ is significantly different in relation to most of the areas in the questionnaire. The clearest is the difference within ”personal knowledge” , in particular that Asia/Australia/New Zealand consistently score higher than the other regions.

It also appears from the questionnaire that ”gender” has no significance for how the respondents experience the various statements. This applies to all areas. The majority expresses a clear standpoint/attitude against use of doping in sport. In addition, there is distancing from the use of doping for shorter periods, even if the medical side effects are small. The respondents also express that even though the risk of being discovered is small, they would not use prohibited substances. In addition, the majority of athletes were not willing to use prohibited substances to become a well-known top athlete. In this context it is interesting that the group junior has a less clear anti –doping attitude than the senior group. It also appears that the group juniors has a less restrictive attitude to using doping as a one-off, and as a quick way to becoming well-known top athletes.

Even though the results indicate that the athletes have a clear attitude against doping it is both a concern and a challenge that there is still 10 – 15 % of the respondents who are of another opinion.

One of two athletes experience that the incidence of doping in sport is an increasing problem and that drug abuse in society has an impact on doping in sport. At the same time, approximately half express that attitudes in relation to doping can be influenced. This emphasises the necessity that the phenomenon doping should be both analysed and understood in relation to a sociological and social context.

Within ”personal knowledge” the results show that the group junior is experienced as having less knowledge in relation to all areas than the group senior. Concerning knowledge about doping controls and regulations, this can probably be explained by the fact that seniors have more experience as athletes.

In relation to knowledge about substances, negative effects, nutrition/supplements and not least ethics and fair play, it is disquieting that juniors experience having less knowledge in relation to these areas than seniors. This is a challenge since it is anticipated that knowledge about these areas can have a preventive effect on attitudes and any use of prohibited substances.

Within the area ”Fight against doping in sport” the respondents have given almost identical answers to the questions, and not assigned priorities to the various measures, as was the intention. Probably the respondents answered "how important it (generally) is to do something", and not how or which measures should be emphasised. This part therefore functions less adequately than desired, and has limited the possibility of analyses.

In spite of this, it appears from the material that many (70%) of the respondents express that doping controls both in competition and out of competition are very important for the future fight against doping in sport. The senior group states ”out of competition controls” as the most important measure.

The conclusion is that there exist differences between the age groups in many of the areas which are included in the questionnaire. Efforts should therefore be concentrated on increasing course / education offers for athletes, particularly in relation to the group juniors.

The main aim of this project is to explore how social media platforms can be harnessed to promote anti-doping behaviour among young people and applied in various localities by anti-doping organisations worldwide.

More specific aims of the research contributing to the development of this guidance were to explore:
- How social media can be used to influence attitudes and behaviours of people toward social issues comparable to doping:

• The pros and cons of social marketing as compared to other approaches;
• When social marketing should be used and when alternatives should be considered;
• Specific methods of communicating online which are particularly successful in aiding behavioural/attitudinal change;
• Guiding principles which underpin successful or innovative social media campaigns.

Shields EW Jr.
Adolescence. 1995 Winter;30(120):839-61.
Department of Physical Education, Exercise & Sport Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 27599-8605, USA.

Through observations and perceptions of athletic directors/coaches, this study (1) broadly examined substance abuse of adolescent (high school) student-athletes; (2) made comparisons of substance abuse between student-athletes and students comprising the general student body; and (3) made selected comparisons of substance abuse between the regional data of this study and that of a national survey of high school coaches done by George H. Gallup International Institute (1991). Some comparisons were also made with the findings of a survey of drug use patterns among a sample of 10,883 public school students conducted by the Alcohol and Drug Defense (ADD) Section, North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (1991; 1989; 1987a, 1987b) and a survey of drug use patterns among 2,685 high school student-athletes (Shields, 1988).

The drug abuse problem for student-athletes was observed-perceived to be of lesser magnitude regionally than nationally and to be less for student-athletes with their peers in the general student body. In virtually every comparison of student-athletes with their peers in the general student body, the drug problem was seen to be less for student-athletes, and in some instances, dramatically less.

PMID:
8588520
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Sociological investigations of human enhancement drugs : The case of microdosing psychedelics / Dimitrios Liokaftos

• International Journal of Drug Policy 95 (2021) 103099 (September)
• PMID: 33518382
• DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103099

Abstract

Microdosing psychedelics is the regular use of sub-perceptive threshold doses of substances such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin ('magic') mushrooms. The phenomenon has attracted increasing public and scientific attention in numerous countries in recent years. This commentary looks at microdosing psychedelics as an emerging facet of human enhancement through drugs. After presenting a narrative based on a multidisciplinary body of literature on human enhancement drugs and microdosing, the commentary maps out directions for further sociological studies of the phenomenon as well as outlining the different fields such research can contribute to.

Some Current Challenges Facing the Athlete and Their Doctor / Shane P. Brun. - (Australian Journal of General Practice 49 (2020) 1-2 (January-February); p. 23-31).
- PMID: 32008269.
- DOI: 10.31128/AJGP-09-19-5081

Abstract

Background:
Primary care physicians are often responsible for the care of people involved in sporting and exercise activities at various competitive levels. Issues confronting the athlete and their primary care physician are the potentially serious risks, responsibilities and challenges facing those involved with sport and physical activity.

Objective:
The aim of this article is to address three of the most important challenges currently facing the athlete and primary care physician caring for athletes. The challenges are to recognise the potential risks to the athlete of sustaining a sudden cardiac arrest, sports-related concussion or doping violation in sport, as each of these have serious implications for life, wellbeing, performance and/or reputation. Education and risk mitigation are also essential components of care that will be addressed.

Discussion:
The primary care physician caring for athletes has a pivotal role in ensuring appropriate screening, education and ongoing surveillance to minimise the potentially serious risks facing those involved with physical activity.

Act on the protection of health and the fight against doping in sport : Public General Act 7/2006 dated November 21st, 2006 / Government of Spain. - Madrid : Government of Spain, 2006. - (BOE-A-2006-20263). - (Official State Gazette (2006) 279 (22 November); Sec. I., Page 40859-40879)

Translation of:
Ley Orgánica 7/2006, de 21 de noviembre, de protección de la salud y de lucha contra el dopaje en el deporte.

Ley Orgánica 7/2006, de 21 de noviembre, de protección de la salud y de lucha contra el dopaje en el deporte / Government of Spain. - Madrid : Government of Spain, 2006. - (BOE-A-2006-20263). - (Official State Gazette (2006) 279 (22 November); Sec. I., Page 40859-40879)

Original Spanish version of:
Act on the protection of health and the fight against doping in sport : Public General Act 7/2006 dated November 21st, 2006