Background
The use of doping drugs in Cameroon is common. Even more common is drug-use among amateur sportsmen and women. Little, if anything at all, is being done to educate, raise awareness and sensitize sportsmen and women in the country about the negative health effects and criminal consequences of drug use in sports. Obtaining scientific evidence on the current situation was evaluated as necessary for informing ongoing and future programs and providing the tools for advocacy on the problem.

Objectives
This study sought to understand young athletes’ doping behavior, circuits of acquisition of drugs, sources of knowledge, awareness and use of lawful/unlawful substances by young athletes; and to study perceptions regarding Cameroon’s anti-doping measures.

Methods
The study was cross-sectional in design and utilized a multi-method data gathering strategy that combined quantitative and qualitative techniques. A face-to-face questionnaire was administered to 1,600 randomly selected young athletes from 7 major sport federations in Cameroon drawn from four study sites: Yaounde, Douala, Bamenda and Garoua. Questionnaire items addressed the following themes: Knowledge, perceptions of doping, and doping experiences. In addition, an interview guide was used to collect complementary qualitative data from key informants on the following: reasons for doping; strengths and weaknesses of current anti-doping measures; and the role each sector they represent could play to enhance doping prevention. Quantitative data was analysed using EPI Info and SPSS. Qualitative analysis was conducted using AnSWR (Analysis Software for Word-based Records). A content analysis of text based qualitative data allowed for deductive conclusions to be drawn.

Key findings
Knowledge of lawful and unlawful drugs including food complements
Knowledge of lawful drugs (55%), unlawful drugs (93%), and food supplements (84%) associated with sports was common. Study participants cited a wide range of performance enhancing substances but most notably, Banga (74%) and Cocaine (54%) as unlawful. Although there appeared to be an upsurge in doping drug use, doping prevention measures were not rigorously implemented. Only 11% of athletes had seen the country’s anti-doping regulation. In the absence of formal sensitization, athletes were informed about drugs mainly through friends and the media and about negative side effects, by trainers.

Attitudes of athletes towards drug-use
Six percents of athletes believed that athletes dope out of necessity, while 19% believed that doping is essential for success in sports. Fifty four per cent of participants declared that doping use is common within their respective federations. Disciplines most affected by doping were cited to be football, athletics, boxing and cycling. About 34% of study participants said they were aware of colleagues who use drugs, while 41% knew of opponents who took doping drugs to improve their performance. Marijuana (locally known as Banga) (44%), Guronsan (16%), and Cocaine (8%), were the most common doping substances used by athletes. Doping appeared to be approved by many coaches and encouraged by friends. Meanwhile, athletes who avoided doping did so mainly because they feared side-effects and not because they saw doping as unethical and illegal.

Circuits of acquisition of drugs
Sources of acquisition of doping substances included friends, dealers, the market and the pharmacy. More than half of athletes admitted to involuntarily using doping drugs. Managers, coaches, sports medics, as well as relatives were reported to be the main drivers behind the supply of doping substances to athletes. About 50% of athletes acquired unlawful natural substances and, 30%, unlawful chemical substances easily.

Implementation of anti-doping measures
Most athletes acknowledged the non-implementation of anti-doping measures within their federations. For those who claimed that anti-doping measures were implemented, 60% of them mentioned education, 19%, surveillance, and 11%, repressive measures. Only 17% of the respondents had undergone a drug test before in their sports career. Official doping controls were not conducted during local and national competitions and doping surveillance was neither routinely nor intermittently conducted.

External and internal pressures to use doping substances
Athletes reportedly faced external and internal pressures to use doping substances. Many doping offences were said to occur due to ignorance of what constitutes lawful and unlawful substances. Key informants reported that they were able to identify substances athletes often use, by sight and not by name, and were even less likely to categorize them either as lawful or unlawful. Key informants stated that the growing popularity and increasing commercialisation of sports was pushing young athletes to dope in order to succeed. The general perception by athletes that their rivals were already taking drugs and also that drug offenders were not penalised, appeared to encourage doping initiation. Additionally, poor knowledge of what constitutes doping appeared to render athletes susceptible to the negative manipulations of influential peers, trainers, managers and parents.

Conclusion
There is evidence that the practice of doping is growing rapidly among sportsmen and women in Cameroon. Anti-doping measures exist mainly in theory as they are seldom implemented in practice. Knowledge of what constitutes doping is notoriously limited and frequently distorted. Evidence from the data suggests an urgent need for measures to rescue the situation before doping becomes an institutionalized practice in Cameroon sports. For any initiatives to have an impact in the country, the gap between anti-doping policies and implementation would need to be closed. Rigorous implementation of preventive and repressive measures, e.g. education and sensitization, doping tests, penalties for doping offences, etc, is critically needed. A fair amount of evidence-based advocacy targeting policy makers could bring about the desired changes to both policy and implementation and ensure that an impending doping explosion is avoided in the country.

Determinants of Doping Intentions in Sports (Project DIDIS) / Haralambos Tsorbatzoudis

1.1. Background
Project DIDIS was funded in January 2008 by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) under the programme ‘social science research grant’. This project was completed by the Sports and Physical Education Department of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in association with the South-East European Research Centre (SEERC) and the Greek National Council to Combat Doping (NCCD). The duration of the project was 18 months (January 2008 – June 2009).

1.2. Project aims
Project DIDIS aimed to:
• Identify the sportspersonship and motivational profiles of athletes using or intending to use prohibited substances
• Examine the effect of psychosocial variables on athletes’ intention to engage in doping, in order to inform subsequent prevention interventions aimed at athletes with risk for doping
• Provide a parsimonious, theory-driven, and integrated model of the psychosocial determinants of prohibited substance use in sports

1.3. Methodology
The methods involved the cross-sectional administration of a battery of psychological measures in a representative sample (N = 1040) of elite athletes in Greece (M age = 22.9 years, 37.4% females). The measures included:
o Demographic characteristics (age, gender)
o Achievement goal orientations
o Motivational regulations
o Sportspersonship orientations
o Beliefs about the causes of success in sports
o Attitudes, social norms, and behavioral control beliefs
o Social desirability

1.4. Results
• The results of the cluster analysis revealed three achievement goal groups (mastery and approach oriented and high achievers), three self-determination groups (high and low motivated and amotivated) and two sportspersonship groups (high and low sportspersonship). Mastery oriented and high motivated athletes showed the less intention to engage in doping practices compared to high achievers and amotivated athletes. No significant differences were revealed between the sportspersonship groups.
• Regarding the effect of psychosocial variables on athletes’ intention to engage in doping, the regression analyses indicated that introjection and mastery approach goals were negative predictors of intentions, whereas amotivation and performance avoidance goals were positive predictors. In terms of sportpersonship, only social conventions predicted negatively intentions to engage in doping. The TPB variables were found to be significant predictors of intentions.
• The investigation of the integrated model indicated that the effect of distal variables (i.e., achievement goals and motivational regulations) was mediated by the effect of more proximal ones, mainly that of the TPB variables and situational temptation.

1.5. Discussion
The findings of the present study support previous research evidence and theoretical underpinnings on the effect of achievement goals and motivational regulations on planning and executing an unhealthy behavior, such as doping. Furthermore they highlight the important role the TPB variables and situational temptation can play in understanding the mechanisms through which intentions to engage in doping are formulated. Surprisingly, doping was not considered as an unethical behavior and sportspersonship dimensions did not have the expected effect. The findings of the project are discussed in light of current theoretical approaches and on the basis of constructing effective interventions and campaigns to combat doping.

ABSTRACT
Introduction: Athletes from the Balkan have lost on the last two Olympic Games 5 medals and 5 athletes have been doping positive on out of competition testing, which represents 36% doping positive of all athletes in Sidney 2000 and 24% in Athens 2004.

Objectives: The aim of this study is to examine attitudes and experience of medical doctors from Balkan Countries in doping in sport.

Materials and methods: A total of 219 medical doctors from Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Serbia and Turkey fulfilled the questionnaire related to doping control procedure, athletes’ rights and responsibilities, their training in doping prevention and willingness to have more education.

Results: During the period of 12 months, 80% doctors have been asked for information about doping agents, 25% of them have been contacted by athletes for the prescription of doping agents, 14% of doctors think that they should assist athletes who want to use doping so that athletes can use doping safely and in 27% of the doctors have treated athletes who are using doping due to medical problems. They believe that education is the most effective method to fight against doping and they believe that the least effective method is two years ban. They indicated adolescents and children as a first group which needs to be targeted in a doping prevention, professional athletes as a second and amateur athletes as a third one.

Conclusion: Hypothesis that athletes are not informed about doping agents because of poor knowledge of medical doctors about this issue is confirmed. This study suggests that medical doctors from Balkan region recognize doping as a real public health problem, and the need for its prevention. Our study stresses the need for prompt education and adequate training of medical doctors in this domain.

Who this guidance is for
This guidance has been commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) for use by organisations interested in engaging young athletes in communications around the issue of anti-doping.

How this guidance has been developed
This guidance has been developed following a review of the research literature and interviews with academics, campaign managers, a selection of National and Regional Anti-Doping Organisations, and young athletes themselves. We have attempted to incorporate the perspectives of stakeholders from around the world within this review2. In particular we would like to thank Dr Brian Cugelman and UK Anti-Doping for their detailed feedback on this guidance.

Contents:

• What is social media?
• How do people use social media?
• How can I use social media?
• A 10-step programme for using social media successfully
• Further reading

The main aim of this project is to explore how social media platforms can be harnessed to promote anti-doping behaviour among young people and applied in various localities by anti-doping organisations worldwide.

More specific aims of the research contributing to the development of this guidance were to explore:
- How social media can be used to influence attitudes and behaviours of people toward social issues comparable to doping:

• The pros and cons of social marketing as compared to other approaches;
• When social marketing should be used and when alternatives should be considered;
• Specific methods of communicating online which are particularly successful in aiding behavioural/attitudinal change;
• Guiding principles which underpin successful or innovative social media campaigns.

Análisis de conocimientos y percepciones sociales sobre doping y prevención, en deportistas de Córdoba (Argentina) y su abordaje preventivo (Spanish title)

Summary
Este trabajo de investigación en Ciencias Sociales tiene como respuesta a la convocatoria de la Agencia Mundial Antidopaje (WADA), Comisión de Educación, que tiene como finalidad el mejoramiento de los procesos de conocimiento de la realidad del dopaje en distintos lugares del mundo para enfocar la prevención del mismo.
El dopaje en el deporte es un fenómeno ampliamente difundido periódicamente por los medios de comunicación al público, lo cual pone en duda cualquier actuación atlética. El dopaje, sin embargo, tiene una historia muy antigua que va más allá de los deportes y se reconoce en la relación entre el cuerpo, las drogas y el rendimiento. Este estudio se interesó por los deportistas federados y no federados de la Provincia de Córdoba, Argentina y tiene como objetivo abordar sus pronunciamientos y sus representaciones sociales específicas de dopaje y su prevención. A través de encuestas semi-estructuradas sobre el tema del doping y prevención, han sido encuestaron 1548 atletas, hombres y mujeres de diferentes disciplinas deportivas individuales y colectivas, federados y amateurs. También se entrevistaron 145 personas relacionadas directamente con los deportistas, entre los cuales se incluyen entrenadores, médicos deportólogos, dirigentes, periodistas deportivos, etc., a los cuales se le aplicaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas sobre el tema del dopaje y su prevención.

Las Representaciones Sociales (Moscovici, 1984; Jodelet, 1989; Doise, 1992) inspiraron el marco teórico y metodológico de este estudio, permitiendo un análisis descriptivo de ambas posiciones y estructurales de la toma de posición de los sujetos. El análisis descriptivo rescata cinco categorías de discurso. Las definiciones del dopaje en la mayoría se basan en conceptos equivocados, ya que lo representan como antidoping, otros sobre las nociones de peligro, de los efectos naturales y artificiales, de la desposesión de sí mismo y del rendimiento, de los efectos en el cuerpo y de la transgresión a la ley. Las causas de dopaje aparecen en los planos individual y social. Las razones que se atribuyen a la negativa del dopaje son biológicas, morales, médicas y técnicas. Las consecuencias del dopaje son a la vez paradójicas y ambivalentes. Por último, emerge un conjunto de matices con respecto al nivel, a la naturaleza o la forma de dopaje que resulta ser relativamente complejo y diferenciado entre los deportistas y personas relacionadas con ellos. En el análisis estructural emergen dos niveles en las representaciones del dopaje en los deportivos: una oposición sujeto/ fuera del sujeto y una oposición ética tradicional / característica inherente a la moral del universo de deporte. Parecería que finalmente, a pesar de los problemas como el dopaje, los ideales en que descansa el deporte todavía tienen un lugar en el deporte de élite y amateur. Por ello, tienen construida la idea que a partir de la educación antidoping se logrará vivenciar “el juego limpio” en las prácticas deportivas.

Palabras clave: deporte sin dopaje, las representaciones sociales, la transgresión ética, cuerpo, lealtad, educación antidoping.

CAS 2009/A/1954 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) v. Confederacâo Brasileira de Judô (CBJ) & Victor Penalber

• Judo
• Doping (furosemide)
• Application of the lex mitior principle to determine the applicable regulations
• Presence of a prohibited substance
• Determination of the applicable sanction
• Absence of mitigating circumstances

1. According to the International Judo Federation (IJF) Anti-Doping Rules, a case shall be governed by the substantive anti-doping rules in effect at the time the anti-doping rule violation occurred, unless the panel hearing the case determines that the principle of “lex mitior” should apply under the circumstances. Accordingly, the WADA Prohibited List in effect at the time of the procedure and considering Furosemide a Specified Substance should be applicable as it constitutes a “lex mitior” in comparison to the previous list.

2. Under the IJF Anti-Doping Rules the presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers in an athlete’s bodily specimen constitutes an anti-doping rule violation. It is each athlete’s personal duty to ensure that no prohibited substance enters his or her body. Accordingly, it is not necessary that intent, fault, negligence or knowing Use on the athlete’s part be demonstrated in order to establish an anti-doping violation (strict liability principle).

3. Under the 2009 IJF Anti-Doping Rules, the period of ineligibility imposed for the presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers like Furosemide, a diuretic and masking agent, shall be two (2) years ineligibility for a first violation unless the conditions for eliminating or reducing the period of ineligibility are met. In order to invoke the elimination or the reduction of the period of ineligibility for a specified substance such as Furosemide, it is a prerequisite that the athlete is able to establish exactly how the substance entered into his/her body. Absent any proof in this respect, there is no need to enter into an examination of whether the two year period of ineligibility should be eliminated or reduced for no fault or negligence on the part of the athlete.

4. Age or inexperience in itself cannot be considered mitigating circumstances in a doping violation offence.

On 31 May 2009 the Brazilian Supreme Court of Sports Justice of Judo decided to impose a 1 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete after he tested positive for the prohibited substance Furosemide.

Hereafter the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) appealed the Brazilian decision with the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). WADA requested the Panel to set aside the Appealed Decision and to impose a sanction of 2 years.

The Panel finds the presence of a prohibited substance has been established in the Athlete's sample and accordingly that he committed an anti-doping rule violation.

The Panel finds that the Athlete has not satisfied the necessarily strict evidentiary threshold. Further there seems to be no need to enter into an examination of whether the two year period of ineligibility should be eliminated or reduced for no fault or negligence on the part of the Athlete.

Such an elimination or reduction requires proof of how the substance entered into his body. Finally the Panel establishes that he was neither a minor nor an inexperienced Athlete.

Therefore the Court of Arbitration for Sport decides on 20 May 2010:

1.) The appeal filed by the World Anti-Doping Agency on 21 September 2009 is upheld.

2.) The decision of the Brazilian Supreme Court of Sports Justice of Judo dated 31 May 2009 is set aside.

3.) Mr. Victor Penalber is sanctioned with a two year period of ineligibility starting on the day on which this award enters into force. Any period of ineligibility already served from 11 November 2008 to the date of this award shall be credited against the total period of ineligibility to be served.

4.) All competitive results obtained by Mr. Victor Penalber from 5 October 2008 through the commencement of the period of ineligibility shall be disqualified with all of the resulting consequences, including forfeiture of any medals, points and prizes.

(…)

7.) All other motions or prayers for relief are dismissed.

Aim
The broad aim of this project was to explore the use of over-the-counter (OTC) medication, amongst athletes, from four nations and across 10 sports, with specific reference to stimulants on the Monitoring Program and Prohibited List.

Methodology
1. A review of the scientific literature was undertaken to establish current evidence with regards to the physiological and performance enhancing properties of OTC medication and their desirability as drugs of abuse.
2. A questionnaire was developed to assess respondents:
i. demographics;
ii. use of OTC drugs;
iii. knowledge and understanding of OTC medication in reference to anti-doping measures; and
iv. views and opinions regarding changes to the Prohibited List.
It was administered to elite athletes from Australia, Canada, the UK and the USA representing 10 Olympic sports, including: track and field athletics, canoeing, cycling, gymnastics, hockey, rowing, swimming, triathlon, volleyball and weightlifting.
3. Data from WADA-accredited laboratories was obtained to assess current proportions of urine samples testing positive for stimulants on the Monitoring Program and Specified Substance List.

Key findings
The current research has generated several key findings with regards to the use of OTC drugs amongst elite athletes across four major sporting nations:
i. Athletes who had used OTC products containing substances present on the Monitoring Program over the preceding 12 months accounted for 38 percent of all respondents.
ii. A small proportion of athletes used OTC products for their reputed ergogenic properties.
iii. Athletes demonstrated limited knowledge relating to the penalty incurred following a doping violation involving a banned OTC stimulant; the terms Monitoring Program and Specified Substance List; and the status of substances in relation to the Prohibited List.
iv. If unsure of the prohibitive nature (or otherwise) of an OTC product almost all athletes would consult someone for advice.
v. Both WADA and individual NADOs were the choice by many athletes in terms of whom they would consult for advice. A significant proportion of younger athletes stated that they would consult an individual such as their coach, training partner or team doctor.
vi. Athletes representing cycling and triathlon were most likely to be dissatisfied with anti-doping education within their sport.
vii. The development of a list according to ailment, highlighting OTC products that do [not] contain prohibited substances was deemed an appropriate measure to improve the information available to athletes.
viii. Data from the Monitoring Program supports that of the questionnaire with regards to pseudoephedrine use, however data that pertains to phenylephrine is difficult to interpret.
ix. As a whole, athletes were of the opinion that: OTC stimulants were not performance enhancing; they posed a risk to health; their use was against the spirit of sport; and yet should remain off the Prohibited List.

Conclusions
Whilst the balance of scientific evidence would promote the use of caffeine as an ergogenic aid, the evidence for the use of other stimulants found in OTC medication for the treatment of the symptoms associated with upper respiratory tract infection is less convincing.
The use of OTC products amongst elite athletes is significant, however the evidence suggests that use of such preparations is primarily for therapeutic purposes.
An overall limited knowledge and awareness of OTC medication in reference to anti-doping was evident amongst elite athletes, suggesting that ignorance remains an important factor in the use of drugs by athletes. This is only tempered by their willingness to seek advice from reliable sources.
The inability of the Monitoring Program to provide valid evidence to support the misuse of substances contained in OTC medications highlights the need to expand the current programme to all WADA-accredited laboratories and to include continual qualitative assessment of the situation.

This study examined the attitude towards doping and behaviour regarding doping amongst Ukrainian students. The sample consists of both Sports students and Polytechnics students. The first part of the study includes material of self-reported data of mass survey amongst students. The second part deals with focus groups’ interview materials in order to deeper investigate driving forces of doping behaviour.

It has been established that the doping prevalence in Ukraine might affect nearly 10 % of university students. Prevalence of doping varies greatly with level of sports’ results, kind of sports activity, and the aims of engaging in sport. Representatives of strength and cyclical kinds of sports are at a higher risk of doping prevalence.

The opinion that using doping can lead to better sport results and development of muscles is widespread among Sports students, while Polytechnics students mostly consider that doping can improve appearance and increase muscles.

In spite of the widespread opinion of doping pernicious effect on health, the opinion of athletes has an essential distinction from common beliefs. Sports-oriented students consider that doping does not impact on health negatively if it is used in a reasonable way. Among athletes the opinion that doping in small doses and in reasonable proportions would be beneficial is widespread.

Our results suggest that doping use has a moral legitimacy among the majority of athletes, and this point determines doping use. The motive of “necessity” looks like a mature explanation – an ideological scheme. One of the main reasons of doping use that athletes indicated was the self-affirmation motive, reaching high sport results, material welfare.

A considerable proportion of students have lack of knowledge, in terms of side-effects, sources of information and testing procedure.

A vast proportion of high performance athletes have admitted positive attitude towards doping. One of the main reasons to take a risk of using doping is an opportunity to have a compensation (tangible, social, ideological) for harm to health.

This indicated that driving forces of doping behaviour among sports students are mainly described by the self-affirmation motive, which in turn resulted in pecuniary component.

The findings highlight a gap between policy and student behaviour regarding doping. The evidence from these results may provide arguments for governing bodies and serve as a platform in creating educational programs for main stakeholders.

Many activities focusing on Dutch elite sport have been transferred to the elite sport campaign, 100% Dope Free. In addition to providing information, this campaign focuses also on changing attitudes and behaviour.

Objectives of this program are:
- Increasing the awareness of athletes that it is their responsibility to keep the sport healthy and clean.
- To show that Dutch athletes actively support clean sport.
- To show a new generation that sport without doping is very well possible.
- To be a source of inspiration for the new generation.