Long term effects of doping in sporting records : 1886-2012 / Aaron Hermann, Maciej Henneberg. - (Journal of Human Sport and Exercise 9 (2014) 3; p. 727-743)

• doi:10.14198/jhse.2014.93.05

ABSTRACT

Best life times of top athletes, Olympic records, world records, and any doping information were collected from the IOC, IAAF, WADA and national anti-doping associations. About 1560 records of male and female athletes in 22 disciplines of summer and 4 winter sports were collected. Data were analysed for long-term effects of doping using non-linear regression techniques. Comparisons were made of pre-1932 records (when steroids became available) and post. Analyses were repeated using 1967, when widespread use of doping was formally acknowledged. After these dates records in a number of disciplines did not improve as predicted by extrapolation of pre-doping years results. Averaged best life records for ‘doped’ top athletes did not differ significantly from those considered ‘non-doped’. Even assuming that not all cases of doping were discovered, the practice did not alter sporting records as commonly believed, Doping may be damaging image of sports without benefitting results.

Long-term anabolic androgenic steroid use is associated with deviant brain aging / Astrid Bjørnebekk, Tobias Kaufmann, Lisa E. Hauger, Sandra Klonteig, Ingunn R. Hullstein, Lars T. Westlye. - (Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging (2021), 13 January; p. 1-11)

• DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.001

Abstract

Background

High-dose long-term use of anabolic–androgenic steroids (AASs) may cause a range of adverse effects, including brain and cognitive abnormalities. We performed age prediction based on brain scans to test whether prolonged AAS use is associated with accentuated brain aging.

Methods

T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (3D MPRAGE [magnetization-prepared rapid acquisition gradient-echo]) scans were obtained from male weightlifters with a history of prolonged AAS use (n = 130) or no AAS use (n = 99). We trained machine learning models on combinations of regional brain volumes, cortical thickness, and surface area in an independent training set of 1838 healthy male subjects (18–92 years of age) and predicted brain age for each participant in our study. Including cross-sectional and longitudinal (mean interval = 3.5 years, n = 76) magnetic resonance imaging data, we used linear mixed-effects models to compare the gap between chronological age and predicted brain age (the brain age gap [BAG]) for the two groups and tested for group differences in the rate of change in BAG. We tested for associations between apparent brain aging and AAS use duration, pattern of administration, and dependence.

Results

AAS users had higher BAG compared with weightlifting control subjects, which was associated with dependency and longer history of use. Group differences in BAG could not be explained by other substance use, general cognitive abilities, or depression. While longitudinal analysis revealed no evidence of increased brain aging in the overall AAS group, accelerated brain aging was seen with longer AAS exposure.

Conclusions

The findings suggest that long-term high-dose AAS use may have adverse effects on brain aging, potentially linked to dependency and exaggerated use of AASs.

Long-Term Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Use Is Associated with
Increased Atrial Electromechanical Delay in Male Bodybuilders /
Mustafa Akçakoyun, Elnur Alizade, Recep Gündoğdu, Mustafa Bulut, Mehmet Mustafa Tabakcı, Göksel Açar, Anıl Avcı, Zeki Şimşek, Serdar Fidan, Serdar Demir, Ramazan Kargın, Mehmet Yunus Emiroğlu. - (BioMed Research International (2014) 451520 (4 May); p. 1-8).
- PMID: 24883314.
- PMCID: PMC4026920.
- DOI: 10.1155/2014/451520

Abstract

We investigated the effect of long-term supraphysiologic doses of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) on atrial electromechanical delay (AEMD) in male bodybuilders. We clearly demonstrated that long-term consumption of supraphysiologic doses of AAS is associated with higher values of inter- and intra-AEMD in healthy young bodybuilders.

Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse : a looming public health concern? Gen Kanayama, James I. Hudson, Harrison G Pope Jr. - (Drug and Alcohol Dependence 98 (2008) 1-2 (1 November); p 1-12

• PMID: 18599224
• PMCID: PMC2646607
• DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.05.004

Abstract

Background: The problem of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse has recently generated widespread public and media attention. Most AAS abusers, however, are not elite athletes like those portrayed in the media, and many are not competitive athletes at all. This larger but less visible population of ordinary AAS users began to emerge in about 1980. The senior members of this population are now entering middle age; they represent the leading wave of a new type of aging former substance abusers, with specific medical and psychiatric risks.

Methods: We reviewed the evolving literature on long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of AAS abuse.

Results: Long-term use of supraphysiologic doses of AAS may cause irreversible cardiovascular toxicity, especially atherosclerotic effects and cardiomyopathy. In other organ systems, evidence of persistent toxicity is more modest, and interestingly, there is little evidence for an increased risk of prostate cancer. High concentrations of AAS, comparable to those likely sustained by many AAS abusers, produce apoptotic effects on various cell types, including neuronal cells--raising the specter of possibly irreversible neuropsychiatric toxicity. Finally, AAS abuse appears to be associated with a range of potentially prolonged psychiatric effects, including dependence syndromes, mood syndromes, and progression to other forms of substance abuse. However, the prevalence and severity of these various effects remains poorly understood.

Conclusions: As the first large wave of former AAS users now moves into middle age, it will be important to obtain more systematic data on the long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of this form of substance abuse.

Long-term testosterone gel (AndroGel) treatment maintains beneficial effects on sexual function and mood, lean and fat mass, and bone mineral density in hypogonadal men / Christina Wang, Glenn Cunningham, Adrian Dobs, Ali Iranmanesh, Alvin M. Matsumoto, Peter J. Snyder, Thomas Weber, Nancy Berman, Laura Hull, Ronald S. Swerdloff. - (The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 89 (2004) 5 (1 May); p. 2085-2098)

• PMID: 15126525
• DOI: 10.1210/jc.2003-032006

Abstract

Transdermal testosterone (T) delivery represents an effective alternative to injectable androgens. We studied 163 hypogonadal men who applied 5, 7.5, or 10 g AndroGel (T gel) 1% CIII per day for up to 42 months. Efficacy data were presented in 123 subjects considered evaluable. Continuous AndroGel treatment normalized mean serum T and free T levels. Mean serum 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone concentrations and 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone/T ratio slightly increased, mean serum estradiol/T ratio doubled, and mean serum FSH and LH levels were suppressed by T replacement. Sexual function and mood parameters improved rapidly and were maintained throughout T treatment. Lean body mass increased (P = 0.0001) and fat mass decreased (P = 0.0001), and these changes were maintained with treatment but were not accompanied by significant increases in muscle strength. Increases in serum bone markers suggestive of increased bone formation were followed by gradual and progressive increases in bone mineral density more in the spine (P = 0.0001) than the hip (P = 0.0004). Mild local skin irritation occurred in 12 subjects, resulting in discontinuation in only one subject. Except for the anticipated increase in hematocrit and hemoglobin, there were no clinically significant changes in blood counts or biochemistry. In three subjects with elevated serum prostate-specific antigen, prostate biopsies showed cancer. We conclude that continued application of AndroGel resulted in beneficial effects similar to those with injectables and other transdermal preparations. This study was neither placebo controlled nor powered to determine the effects of T treatment on prostate cancer risk. Thus, monitoring for prostatic disease and assessment for erythrocytosis are strongly advised to reduce the risk of adverse events with T treatment of hypogonadal men.

Longitudinal monitoring of endogenous steroids in human serum by UHPLC-MS/MS as a tool to detect testosterone abuse in sports / Federico Ponzetto, Florence Mehl, Julien Boccard, Norbert Baume, Serge Rudaz, Martial Saugy, Raul Nicoli. - (Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 408 (2016) 3 (January); p. 705-719). -

• PMID: 26677027.
• DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9185-1

Abstract

The detection of testosterone abuse in sports is routinely achieved through the 'steroidal module' of the Athlete Biological Passport by GC-MS(/MS) quantification of selected endogenous anabolic androgenic steroids (EAAS) from athletes' urines. To overcome some limitations of the "urinary steroid profile" such as the presence of confounding factors (ethnicity, enzyme polymorphism, bacterial contamination, and ethanol), ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) measurements of blood concentrations of testosterone, its major metabolites, and precursors could represent an interesting and complementary strategy. In this work, two UHPLC-MS/MS methods were developed for the quantification of testosterone and related compounds in human serum, including major progestogens, corticoids, and estrogens. The validated methods were then used for the analyses of serum samples collected from 19 healthy male volunteers after oral and transdermal testosterone administration. Results from unsupervised multiway analysis allowed variations of target analytes to be assessed simultaneously over a 96-h time period. Except for alteration of concentration values due to the circadian rhythm, which concerns mainly corticosteroids, DHEA, and progesterone, significant variations linked to the oral and transdermal testosterone administration were observed for testosterone, DHT, and androstenedione. As a second step of analysis, the longitudinal monitoring of these biomarkers using intra-individual thresholds showed, in comparison to urine, significant improvements in the detection of testosterone administration, especially for volunteers with del/del genotype for phase II UGT2B17 enzyme, not sensitive to the main urinary marker, T/E ratio. A substantial extension of the detection window after transdermal testosterone administration was also observed in serum matrix. The longitudinal follow-up proposed in this study represents a first example of 'blood steroid profile' in doping control analysis, which can be proposed in the future as a complement to the 'urinary module' for improving steroid abuse detection capabilities.

Longitudinal profiling of urinary steroids by gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry: diet change may result in carbon isotopic variations / Christophe Saudan, Matthias Kamber, Giulia Barbati, Neil Robinson, Aurélien Desmarchelier, Patrice Mangin, Martial Saugy. - (Journal of Chromatography B 831 (2006) 1-2 (February); p. 324-372)

• PMID: 16338181
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.11.029

Abstract

Longitudinal profiling of urinary steroids was investigated by using a gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS) method. The carbon isotope ratio of three urinary testosterone (T) metabolites: androsterone, etiocholanolone, 5beta-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol (5beta-androstanediol) together with 16(5alpha)-androsten-3alpha-ol (androstenol) and 5beta-pregnane-3alpha,20alpha-diol (5beta-pregnanediol) were measured in urine samples collected from three top-level athletes over 2 years. Throughout the study, the subjects were living in Switzerland and were residing every year for a month or two in an African country. (13)C-enrichment larger than 2.5 per thousand was observed for one subject after a 2-month stay in Africa. Our findings reveal that (13)C-enrichment caused by a diet change might be reduced if the stay in Africa was shorter or if the urine sample was not collected within the days after return to Switzerland. The steroids of interest in each sample did not show significant isotopic fractionation that could lead to false positive results in anti-doping testing. In contrast to the results obtained with the carbon isotopic ratio, profiling of urinary testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratios was found to be unaffected by a diet change.

Looking Beyond the Provision of Injecting Equipment to People Who Use Anabolic Androgenic Steroids : Harm Reduction and Behavior Change Goals for UK Policy / Geoff Bates, Jim McVeigh, Conan Leavey

• Contemporary Drug Problems 48 (2021) 2 (1 June), p. 135-150
• DOI: 10.1177/0091450921998701

Abstract

Understanding of the choices and motivations of people who use anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) for muscular enhancement has increased greatly in the past thirty years, along with understanding of a wide range of health harms associated with this form of drug use in the community. During this period the predominant public health intervention for this population in the UK has consistently remained the provision of injecting equipment to prevent blood borne virus (BBV) transmission. The study explored the health professionals’ and other stakeholders’ perceptions on: whether the current UK public health response is sufficient to address the needs of people who use AAS, and if not, what other needs they might have. This included an exploration of whether there were gaps in harm reduction strategies or other behavioral outcomes and interventions that were needed. Interviews with 27 stakeholders who provide support to people who use AAS in a variety of roles established consensus on the need for a range of interventions to reduce harm and risk in those that choose to use AAS, to prevent initiation, to motivate and support cessation, and to prevent relapse. Study findings indicate that while providing sterile injecting equipment remains essential, it should be considered a bare minimum. The challenge is to develop and deliver a range of harm reduction interventions that look beyond BBV prevention to provide appropriate support to who choose to use AAS at all points in their cycles of use and ultimately for those choosing the temporary or permanent cessation of use.

Looking ‘acceptably’ feminine : A single case study of a female bodybuilder’s use of steroids / Justin Kotzé, Andrew Richardson, Georgios A. Antonopoulos. - (Performance Enhancement & Health (2020) 100174 (17 September); p. 1-7)

• DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2020.100174

Abstract

This article aims to shed some light on the motivations for and methods of female steroid consumption apropos broader changes in female body image ideals. Moreover, the study attempts to explore the connections between the competitive logic of liberal-postmodern consumer capitalism, ‘competitive femininity’ and steroid use. There is a growing consensus that an increasing number of women are consuming steroids, yet this phenomenon remains relatively under-researched and as such not much is known about this particular group of users. Utilising a single in-depth case study, this paper offers some additional insight gleaned from an ethnographic interview with a female bodybuilder who uses steroids. Her narrative elucidates some of the risks, harms and motivations for steroid consumption alongside broader changes in female body image ideals. Among the central findings, this paper highlights that the female bodybuilder is not resisting cultural norms but rather hyper-conforming to them by over-identifying with a hyper-idealised form of what constitutes ‘acceptable femininity’. We conclude that steroid consumption retains a strong connection to the desire for aesthetic appeal and that both short and long-term motivations for using steroids are grounded in the drive for conformity. This has pertinent clinical implications for health professionals, particularly in relation to the efficacy of attempts to reduce steroid consumption by warning users of the potential adverse health effects.

Machismo and anabolic steroid misuse among young Latino sexual minority men / John P. Brady, Devon Kimball, Bethany Mendenhall, Aaron J. Blashill. - (Body Image (2019) 30 (September); p. 165-169).
- PMID: 31374390.
- DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.07.007

Abstract

Latino sexual minority men (SMM) have elevated anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) misuse in comparison to their heterosexual and non-Latino peers. Within a gender role framework, desire to present as masculine through heightened muscularity may be related to increased AAS misuse. To assess the association between AAS misuse and a culturally-distinct masculinity, this study examined the relationship of two aspects of machismo, traditional machismo and caballerismo, with AAS misuse in the past month. Participants were 141 young adult Latino SMM recruited from the San Diego area. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire online in English or Spanish, which included measures of machismo and AAS misuse. Out of 141 participants, 27 reported AAS misuse (19.1%). Traditional machismo was positively associated with AAS misuse and caballerismo was negatively associated with AAS misuse. Traditional machismo, which emphasizes dominance, may be positively associated with AAS misuse due to its facilitation of muscle development, which could enable physical intimidation; greater musculature may also counteract assumptions about femininity and sexual orientation. Caballerismo may be negatively associated with AAS by providing a flexible masculinity model that emphasizes social cohesion over dominance. Future AAS misuse interventions could include values-based work and cognitive restructuring of masculinity schemas.