Psychosocial factors facilitating use of cognitive enhancing drugs in education : a qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes / Andrew Robert Heyes, Ian David Boardley

• Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 26 (2019) 4, p. 329-338
• DOI:10.1080/09687637.2019.1586831
• Special Issue: Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement

Abstract

Illicit use of prescription drugs (e.g. modafinil) to enhance academic performance – termed cognitive enhancement (CE) – is a legal, health, and ethical issue. Guided by Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, this study investigated whether student users of CE evidenced specific psychosocial mechanisms (i.e. mechanisms of moral disengagement) when explaining their reasons for CE. Following ethical approval from the lead author’s institution, in-depth-semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine students with experience of CE. Data were content analysed deductively, using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement; six of the eight mechanisms were identified through data analysis: diffusion of responsibility (DR), advantageous comparison (AC), distortion of consequences (DCs), displacement of responsibility, moral justification, and euphemistic labelling. In addition, inductive data analysis identified three further themes; self-medication, family and friends, and institutional position. Overall, the study findings suggest students may morally disengage to justify and rationalise use of CE to minimise negative emotional responses (e.g. guilt) that may be expected to result given the potential legal-, health-, and ethics-based deterrents to CE.

In August 2023 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported and anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Salina Jebet after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance 19-norandrosterone (Nandrolone). 

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete responded and filed a statement in her defence.

The Athlete explained that she underwent medical treatment for her diagnosed condition. In support she submitted medical information and a prescription issued by the Kapsabet County Referral Hospital.

Hereafter the AIU requested assistance from the Anti-Doping Agency of Kenya (ADAK) with an investigation into the Athlete's explanations and supporting medical documents. In October 2023 ADAK's investigation revealed that the filed medical documents from the clinic were falsifications. 

The Hospital confirmed that the Athlete had only visited the hospital in August 2023. Yet, no prescription had ever been issued, nor was an injection administered, nor was the medication Nandrolone in stock in the hospital.

Consequently in May 2024 the AIU reported two anti-doping rule violations against the Athlete for:

• presence of a prohibited substance; and
• tampering with any part of the doping control.

After notification of these charges the Athlete gave a timely admission and she accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU. The AIU considers that the Athlete has failed to demonstrate that these two violations were not intentional, nor any exceptional circumstances for a reduced sanction.

Because the Athlete had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violation and Acceptance of Consequences Form in July 2024 she received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 2 July 2024 to impose a 7 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 17 August 2023.

In June 2023 the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) reported an anti-doping rule violation (ADRV) against the judoka Munkhjin Batdorj after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Trenbolone.

Following Notification, the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing, signed an Agreement on Consequences, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the Centre. In this case the CCES accepted that the Athlete's violation was not intentional.

Therefore the CCES decides on 8 August 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date the Athlete accepted the provisional suspension, i.e. on 26 June 2023.

In May 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Spanish Athlete Abderrahim Ougra for evading sample collection on 21 January 2024.

The Doping Control Officer (DCO) reported that following notification the Athlete had signed the Doping Control Form for confirmation. Escorted by a chaperone the Athlete first returned to his belongings and then took the liberty to do some cooling down activities on the track, despite the chaperone's instructions to report to the DCO immediately.

Thereupon the Athlete disappeared through an exit from the track and left the facility completely. The chaperone was unable to locate the Athlete and neither did the Athlete respond when contacted by phone and WhatsApp.

Hereafter in February 2024 the Athlete explained that he had never received anti-doping education, nor had he been tested before. The Doping Control made him feel very anxious and this anxiety had caused him to run away.

Ultimately in June 2024 the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU.

The AIU considers that there are no exceptional circumstances in this case. Because the Athlete had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form he received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 2 August 2024 to impose a 3 year and 6 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 23 May 2024.

In October 2023 United Kingdom Anti-Doping (UKAD) reported an anti-doping rule violation (ADRV) against the rugby player David Foggin-Johnston after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cocaine.

Following notification, a provisional suspension was imposed. The Athlete filed a statement in his defence and he was heard for the National Anti-Doping Panel.

The Athlete admitted the violation and asserted that the Cocaine was used only recreational, out-of-competition and unrelated to sport performance. He acknowledged that he suffered from a cocaine habit and abuse of alcohol.

With friends he had consumed large amounts of alcohol and had used cocaine from the Thursday evening until the Friday evening. Although he admitted later that he continued drinking hereafter and had used more grams of cocaine then stated, he denied he had used cocaine on Saturday or on Sunday.

He stated that originally he was not scheduled to play on Sunday. Yet, when he was recovering in bed at home on Saturday he was called unexpectedly to play on Sunday where he was tested.

UKAD and its anti-doping expert deemed that the Athlete's use occurred in-competition because he also must have used cocaine on the Saturday. When he was tested the concentration found in his sample was 140 times above the threshold whereas the concentration of Benzoylecgonine in his sample was 79 time greater.

In view of the evidence the Panel concludes that the Athlete's use of cocaine was recreational and ultimately occurred in-competition when he started his binge session on the Thursday. The Panel does not accept that his first explanation of his consumption of cocaine and alcohol was inaccurate, neither that he failed to produce corroborating evidence in his defence.

Therefore the Panel decides on 1 August 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 11 October 2023.

In August 2023 United Kingdom Anti-Doping (UKAD) reported an anti-doping rule violation (ADRV) against the rugby player Bevan Jay after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Enobosarm (Ostarine).

Following notification, a provisional suspension was imposed. The Athlete filed a statement in his defence and he was heard for the National Anti-Doping Panel.

The Athlete accepted the test result and denied that the violation was intentional. He could not explain how the substance had entered his system and believed that a fat burner product he has used was likely the source of the substance.

UKAD contended that he Athlete failed to demonstrate with corroborating evidence that the violation was not intentional. UKAD ruled out contamination because of the high concentration established in his sample while the relevant supplements were also not mentioned on the Doping Control Form.

The Panel agrees that the Athlete failed to demonstrate with corroborating evidence that the violation was not intentional, nor how the substance had entered his system. The Panel deems that there are no grounds for a reduced sanction.

Therefore the Panel decides on 18 July 2024 to impose a 4 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 15 August 2023.

In Mei 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Reuben Kiprop Kipyego. The AIU deemed that the Athlete had 3 Whereabouts Failures within a 12 month period:

• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 8 September 2023;
• a Missed Test and Filing Failure on 5 January 2024; and
• a Filing Failure on 12 March 2024.

After notification a provisional suspension was ordered while the Athlete failed to respond to the communications of the AIU. Because of his failure to respond to the charge within the set deadline the AIU deems that the Athlete has admitted the anti-doping rule violation, waived his right for a hearing and accepted the consequences thereupon.

Therefore the AIU decides on 17 July 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 27 Mai 2024.

In June 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation (ADRV) against the French Athlete Mehdi Frère. Both the AIU and the AFLD deemed that the Athlete had 3 Whereabouts Failures recorded within a 12 month period:

• a Filing Failure on 23 February 2023;
• a Filing Failure on 18 September 2023;
• a Filing Failure on 22 February 2024.

Regarding 2 Whereabouts Failure the Athlete had submitted his explanations, whereas he requested an administrative review only for his last failure. Nevertheless his objection were rejected and the 3 Whereabouts Failures were recorded.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete filed a statement in his defence and he was heard for the World Athletics Disciplinary Tribunal.

World Athletics contended that the Athlete had committed an anti-doping rule violation due to the 3 Whereabouts Failures. As a result it requested the Panel to impose a sanction of 2 years on the Athlete.

The Athlete admitted his 2nd Whereabouts Failure and denied he acted intentionally. Further he asserted that in this case there had been several procedural failures and breaches made by the AFLD and AIU.

He demonstrated with evidence that the local circumstances and last minute changes made it difficult for him to timely update his Whereabouts in ADAMS. Moreover as a gendarme since 2018 and member of the French Republican Guard he explained that his status as an athlete is subordinate to his professional obligations. 

The Panel assessed and addressed the evidence and arguments presented by the Parties and determines that:

• Any procedural failure that prior occurred must be considered cured and thus are insignificant for this arbitration procedure.
• There were 3 Whereabouts Failures recorded within a 12 month period.
• The Athlete committed an anti-doping rule violation.
• His Whereabouts in ADAMS were inaccurate because he failed to timely update his information.
• He acted negligently and his explanations are not credible.
• He failed to attend any of the 20 education sessions organized by the AFLD in 2022 and 2023.
• The Athlete's degree of fault is very high and there are no grounds for a reduced sanction.

Therefore the Panel decides on 15 July 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 4 June 2024.

In July 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf on World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Daniel Muindi after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance 19-norandrosterone (Nandrolone).

After notification the Athlete timely admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU.

The AIU determines that the Athlete failed to establish that the violation was not intentional. Because he had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form he received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 15 July 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 10 July 2024.

In May 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenya Athlete Judith Jerubet  after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Triamcinolone acetonide.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. Thereupon the Athlete failed to respond to the AIU communications.

Because she did not respond within the set deadline the AIU determines in July 2024 that the Athlete was deemed to have waived her right for a hearing and accepted the consequences. Moreover the AIU determines that she had had failed to sign and submit the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

Therefore the AIU decides on 15 July 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 7 June 2024.