Psychosocial factors facilitating use of cognitive enhancing drugs in education : a qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes / Andrew Robert Heyes, Ian David Boardley

• Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 26 (2019) 4, p. 329-338
• DOI:10.1080/09687637.2019.1586831
• Special Issue: Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement

Abstract

Illicit use of prescription drugs (e.g. modafinil) to enhance academic performance – termed cognitive enhancement (CE) – is a legal, health, and ethical issue. Guided by Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, this study investigated whether student users of CE evidenced specific psychosocial mechanisms (i.e. mechanisms of moral disengagement) when explaining their reasons for CE. Following ethical approval from the lead author’s institution, in-depth-semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine students with experience of CE. Data were content analysed deductively, using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement; six of the eight mechanisms were identified through data analysis: diffusion of responsibility (DR), advantageous comparison (AC), distortion of consequences (DCs), displacement of responsibility, moral justification, and euphemistic labelling. In addition, inductive data analysis identified three further themes; self-medication, family and friends, and institutional position. Overall, the study findings suggest students may morally disengage to justify and rationalise use of CE to minimise negative emotional responses (e.g. guilt) that may be expected to result given the potential legal-, health-, and ethics-based deterrents to CE.

In July 2024 the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the football player after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance RAD-140.

Following notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by CCES. Because the Athlete signed and submitted the Early Admission and Acceptance Form he received a 1 year reduction from CCES.

Therefore CCES decides on 15 October 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 25 July 2024.

In July 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Rodgers Ondaji Gesabwa after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cocaine.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete accepted the test result and filed a statement in his defence.

The Athlete explained that in May 2024 in the hotel in Lima, Peru, at breakfast he most likely had consumed coca tea, which was accessible to all hotel guests.

After investigations the AIU accepted that the coca tea in the hotel in Lima was the source of the positive test. As a result the AIU deems that ingestion of coca tea occurred out-of-competition and was unrelated to sport performance.

Thereupon in October 2024 the Athlete admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU. He also signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

Therefore the AIU decides on 9 October 2024 to impose a 3 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 10 July 2024.

In August 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Charles Kipkkurui Langat after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Furosemide.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete accepted the test result and filed a statement in his defence.

The Athlete explained that he suffered from inflammation since September 2023 and underwent medical treatment for his condition. When his sickness worsened he was advised in August 2024 to use Furosemide for 4 days.

Ultimately in September 2024 the Athlete admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU. He also signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

The AIU deems that there is no evidence that the Athlete's violation was intentional. Finally the AIU determines there are no grounds for a reduced sanction.

Therefore the AIU decides on 8 October 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 6 August 2024.

In August 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf of World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Ethiopian Athlete Yimer Bililign after her A and B samples tested positive for the prohibited substances Prednisolone and Prednisone. Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered.

The Athlete denied the intentional use of the substances and could not explain how they had entered her system. Besides two regular medication she asserted that she had not used anything else.

Ultimately in October 2024 the Athlete admitted the violation, waived her right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU. She also signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

The AIU considers that there is no evidence that the Athlete's violation was intentional. Finally the AIU deems there are no grounds for a reduced sanction.

Therefore the AIU decides on 2 October 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 6 September 2024.

In August 2021 the boxer Jack Ewbank was arrested by the police for the supply of Cocaine and possession of criminal property. In September 2023 the Athlete pleaded guilty in court and he was sentenced for 29 months.

Hereafter United Kingdom Anti-Doping (UKAD) became aware that the Athlete had received criminal convictions and opened an investigation. Thereupon in February 2024 UKAD reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Athlete for trafficking or attempted trafficking of a prohibited substance.

Following notification to the Athlete at the prison he initially failed to respond. Ultimately in August 2024 the Athlete admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by UKAD.

Therefore UKAD decides on 25 September 2024 to impose a 4 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 1 February 2024. 

In June 2024 the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the broomball player Nolan McAuley after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cannabis.

After notification a provisional suspension was ordered and the Athlete failed to respond to the CCES communications.

Because the Athlete failed to dispute the asserted violation within the deadline the Athlete is deemed to have admitted the violation, to have waived his right for a hearing and to have accepted the sanction proposed by the CCES.

Therefore the CCES decides on 25 September 2024 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on 6 September 2024.

In August the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf on World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Kenyan Athlete Faith Chepkoech after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Recombinant Erythropoietin (RhEPO).

Following notification the Athlete timely admitted the violation, waived her right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. She acknowledged that she had been injected with an unknown substance by an unknown person in July 2024.

The AIU deems that the Athlete failed to establish that the violation was not intentional. Because she had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form she received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 24 September 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 6 September 2023.

In August 2024 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU), on behalf on World Athletics, reported an anti-doping rule violations against the Moroccan Athlete Taoufik Allam after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Recombinant Erythropoietin (RhEPO).

Following notification the Athlete timely admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. 

The AIU deems that the Athlete failed to establish that the violation was not intentional. Because he had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form he received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 24 September 2024 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 16 August 2024.

In April 2024 the United Kingdom Anti-Doping reported an anti-doping rule violation against the rugby player Kieran Goss after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cannabis in a concentration above the WADA threshold. 

Following notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by UKAD.

The Athlete acknowledged that he had used Cannabis recreationally at the material time. In view of the evidence UKAD accepted that the violation occurred out-of-competition and in a context unrelated to sport performance.

Therefore UKAD decides on 19 September 2024 to impose a 3 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 29 June 2022. Because the Athlete had already served the period of ineligibility he is eligible to participate in sport forthwith.