Psychosocial factors facilitating use of cognitive enhancing drugs in education : a qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes / Andrew Robert Heyes, Ian David Boardley

• Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 26 (2019) 4, p. 329-338
• DOI:10.1080/09687637.2019.1586831
• Special Issue: Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement

Abstract

Illicit use of prescription drugs (e.g. modafinil) to enhance academic performance – termed cognitive enhancement (CE) – is a legal, health, and ethical issue. Guided by Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, this study investigated whether student users of CE evidenced specific psychosocial mechanisms (i.e. mechanisms of moral disengagement) when explaining their reasons for CE. Following ethical approval from the lead author’s institution, in-depth-semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine students with experience of CE. Data were content analysed deductively, using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement; six of the eight mechanisms were identified through data analysis: diffusion of responsibility (DR), advantageous comparison (AC), distortion of consequences (DCs), displacement of responsibility, moral justification, and euphemistic labelling. In addition, inductive data analysis identified three further themes; self-medication, family and friends, and institutional position. Overall, the study findings suggest students may morally disengage to justify and rationalise use of CE to minimise negative emotional responses (e.g. guilt) that may be expected to result given the potential legal-, health-, and ethics-based deterrents to CE.

iNADO Update (2023) 3 (6 March)
Institute of National Anti-Doping Organisations (iNADO)

Contents:

Building a Supportive Community

• iNADO welcomes Morocco as a new Member
• Final Call for fundraising for the Ukraine NADO
• KADA Supporting Capacity Building in the Asian Region

Improving Practice Everywhere

• Women's Representation in Sports Institutions
• 2023 Annual iNADO Workshop
• Summary of Detection Methods from the Cologne and Lausanne Laboratories
• iNADO Webinar: with NADA Germany and SIA on Education

Speaking up for NADOs and RADOs Globally

• Summary of Testing Figures and Budget Changes
• Caribbean looking at Jamaica Model for Sports Development

Monthly Features

• Adriana Taboza, newly appointed National Secretary of Brazilian Doping Control Authority
• Women's Representation in Anti-Doping
• Li Zhiquan, new Director General of China Anti-Doping Agency
• iNADO's Cooperation with the Consultancy Agency OAKS coming to an end

iNADO Sponsors and Partners

• New at the Anti-Doping Knowledge Center

CAS 2022/A/9141 Mariano Tammaro v. International Tennis Federation (ITF)

Related case:

ITF 2022 ITF vs Mariano Tammaro
August 25, 2022

In November 2021 the International Tennis Federation (ITF) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Italian tennis player Mariano Tammaro after his A and B samples tested positive for the prohibited substance Clostebol. Consequently the ITF Independent Tribunal decided on 25 August 2022 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete.

In first instance the Panel accepted that the Athlete had demonstrated the source of the prohibited substance and that the violation was not intentional. Considering the circumstances in this case the Panel deemed that there were no grounds for No Significant Fault or Negligence.

Hereafter in September 2022 both the Athlete and the ITF appealed the ITF decision with the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). Following assessment of the case the CAS Panel rendered an operational award.

Therefore the The Court of Arbitration for Sport decides on 2 March 2023 that:

1.) The appeal filed by Mr. Mariano Tammaro on 12 September 2022 against the decision rendered on 25 August 2022 by the Independent Tribunal of the International Tennis Federation (ITF) is partially upheld.

2.) The decision rendered on 25 August 2022 by the Independent Tribunal of the International Tennis Federation  ITF) is partially set aside. The 3rd bullet point of paragraph 109 of the decision of the Independent Tribunal of the International Tennis Federation (ITF) is set aside and replaced with the following:

Mr. Mariano Tammaro is declared Ineligible and barred from participating in any Competition, Event or other activity or funding in accordance with the Tennis Anti-Doping Programme for a period of fifteen (15) months commencing on 30 November 2021.

3.) This arbitral Award is pronounced without costs, except for the Court Office fee of CHF 1,000 (one thousand Swiss francs) paid by Mr. Mariano Tammaro, which is retained by the CAS.

4.) Each Party shall bear their own legal fees incurred in connection with this arbitration.

5.) All other and further motions or prayers for relief are dismissed.

• CAS 2022/A/9031 Stephane Houdet v. International Tennis Federation
• CAS 2022/A/9137 International Tennis Federation v. Stephane Houdet

Related case:

ITF 2022 ITF vs Stéphane Houdet
June 30, 2022

In October 2021 the International Tennis Federation (ITF) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the French wheelchair tennis player Stéphane Houdet for his whereabouts filing failures and 3 missed tests within a 12 month period. Consequently the ITF decided on 30 June 2022 to impose a 15 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete.

In first instance the Panel deemed that the Athlete had acted with a degree of fault in his obligation to be present and available for testing. Bij contrast the Panel concluded that the DCO did what was reasonable in the circumstances to locate the Athlete.

Hereafter in July 2022 the Athlete, and in September 2022 the ITF, appealed the Decision of 30 June 2022 with the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS).

The Athlete requested the Panel to set aside the Appealed Decision and to eliminate or reduce the imposed sanction. By contrast ITF requested the Panel to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete.

The Sole Arbitrator assessed the circumstances regarding the 3 missed tests and addressed the issues raised by the Parties in these matters. The Sole Arbitrator establishes that the incidents of 2 January 2021, 26 July 2021 and 21 September 2021 amounted in 3 missed tests.

The Sole Arbitrator finds that the Athlete's degree of fault in respect of the whereabouts filing of 2 January 2021 warrants a reduction of the period of ineligibility. In respect to the 26 July 2021 missed test the Athlete had admitted his negligence.

The Sole Arbitrator deemed that the Athlete's degree of fault in respect to the missed test on 27 September 2021 does not warrant a further reduction of the sanction. Further the Arbitrator agrees that there had been delays in the proceedings not attributed to the Athlete.

Therefore the Court of Arbitration for Sport decides on 2 March 2023 that:

1.) The appeal filed by Stéphane Houdet on 14 July 2022 against the decision issued on 30 June 2022 by the ITF Independent Tribunal is admissible and is upheld in part.

2.) The appeal filed by the International Tennis Federation on 12 September 2022 against the decision issued on 30 June 2022 by the ITF Independent Tribunal is admissible and is upheld in part.

3.) The decision issued on 30 June 2022 by the ITF Independent Tribunal is set aside.

4.) Mr Houdet is found to have committed an ADRV under Article 2.4 of the 2021 TADP as a result of three Missed Tests on (i) 2 January 2021, (ii) 26 July 2021, and (iii) 27 September 2021.

5.) Mr Houdet is sanctioned with a period of ineligibility of 14 months.

6.) The period of ineligibility is deemed to have started on 27 December 2021 and concludes upon notification of this Award.

7.) Mr Houdet's results from 27 December 2021 to the date of this Award (and any medals, titles, ranking points and prize money won by virtue of those results) are disqualified.

8.) Mr Houdet's results from 27 September 2021 to the commencement of his period of ineligibility on 27 December 2021 (and any medals, titles, ranking points and prize money won by virtue of those results) shall not be retroactively disqualified.

9.) The award is pronounced without costs, except for the Court Office fee of CHF 1,000 (one thousand Swiss Francs) paid by each of Mr Houdet in respect of his appeal and the International Tennis Federation in respect of its appeal, which is retained by the CAS.

10.) Each party shall bear its own costs and other expenses incurred in connection with this arbitration.

11.) All other and further motions or prayers for relief are dismissed.

In July 2021 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU) on behalf of World Athletics reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Iraqi Athlete Danah Hussein after her A and B samples tested positive for the prohibited substances Stanozolol and Clenbuterol. Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered.

The Athlete could not explain the test result and stated that her Coach Karokh Salih Mohammed was responsible for her nutrition, supplements, medication and vitamins. She cooperated with the investigations and could provide evidence about the prohibited substances purchased and provided by the Coach.

Ultimately in June 2022 the Coach admitted that he had provided Stanozolol and Clenbuterol pills to the Athlete. He signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form and on 20 February 2023 he accepted a lifetime period of ineligiblity.

The AIU assesses the Athlete's conduct in this case and finds that she acted with indirect intent. The AIU determines that she had ignored several warning signs and nevertheless she chose to ingest these pills. Her reckless behaviour in this sense means that she is considered to have accepted that a positive test result might materialise.

Because the Athlete signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form in February 2023 she received a 1 year reduction from the AIU. She admitted the violation, waived her right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU.

Furthermore the AIU acknowledged that the Athlete had provided substantial assistance about the serious violations committed by the Coach. Based on her substantial assistance the AIU grants a suspension of 6 months of the sanction.

Therefore the AIU decides on 20 February 2023 to impose a 2 year and 6 months period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e on 16 July 2021.

In July 2021 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU) on behalf of World Athletics reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Iraqi Athlete Danah Hussein after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substances Stanozolol and Clenbuterol.

The Athlete could not explain the test result and stated that her Coach Karokh Salih Mohammed was responsible for her nutrition, supplements, medication and vitamins.

The Coach acknowledged that he had provided these products to the Athlete and alleged that he was unaware they contained prohibited substances.

After further investigations the Coach admitted in June 2022 that he had provided Stanozolol and Clenbuterol pills to the Athlete in June 2021.

Consequently in November 2022 the AIU reported multiple anti-doping rule violations against the Coach for Possession, Trafficking, Administration and Complicitiy. Following notification the Coach admitted the violations, waived his right for a hearing and accepted a provisional suspension.

Finally in December 2022 the Coach signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form and accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 20 February 2023 to impose a lifetime period of ineligibility on the Coach, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e on 16 November 2021.

In October 2021 the International Tennis Federation (ITF) has reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Russian  tennis player Daria Mishina after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Testosterone.

After notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived her right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the ITF.

The Athlete accepted the test result and denied the intentional use of the substance. She explained with evidence that she underwent treatment in a Clinic for her medical condition.

She asserted that in this Clinic the medical staff accidentally must have mixed up two treatments. She had to receive a Vitamin D injection whereas another patient had to receive a Testosterone intravenous infusion.

The ITF considered that the administered intravenous infusion in the Clinic is a prohibited method and invited the Athlete to apply for a retroactive TUE. However the ITF TUE Committee rejected this application in August 2022.

Consequently in in December 2020 the ITF formally reported two anti-doping rule violations against the Athlete for the presence of Testosterone and for the use of a prohibited method. In view of the evidence The ITF deems that the Athlete had not demonstrated that the violation was not intentional and considers that she gave an early admission and acceptance of sanction.

Therefore the ITF decides on 17 February 2023 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 16 October 2021

In November 2022 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU) on behalf of World Athletics has reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Argentinian Athlete José Sanches after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cocaine.

After notification, the Athlete admitted the violation, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by the AIU. He signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violation and Acceptance of Consequences Form.

The Athlete explained with evidence that in September 2022 he had chewed coca leaves because of his mountain sickness. He also had used coca tea to treat an upset stomach caused by altitude sickness.

In view of the evidence the AIU accepts that the violation was not intentional and the result of the Athlete's use of coca leaves and coca tea out-of-competition and unrelated to sport perfomance.

Therefore the AIU decides on 17 February 2023 to impose a 3 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete starting, on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 18 November 2022.

iNADO Update (2023) 2 (6 February)
Institute of National Anti-Doping Organisations (iNADO)

Contents:

Building a Supportive Community

• RADO Round Table Meeting Summary
• Technical Lead Call

Speaking up for NADOs and RADOs Globally

• iNADO Coordination meeting with WADA on ADAMS*Improving Practice Everywhere
• 2023 Annual iNADO Workshop Updated Agenda
• Invitation for 2023 iNADO Annual General Assembly
• Thought Leadership: Why we need International
• Performance Indicators for Education
• Research on Intelligence-based doping control planning improves Testing Effectiveness

Monthly Features

• "CHAOS" by USADA
• Jeremy Luke, new CCES President and CEO

iNADO Sponsors and Partners

• New at the Anti-Doping Knowledge Center

Report of the Independent Observers XXII Commonwealth Games  Birmingham 2022 / Independent Observer Team. - Montreal : World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 2023