Psychosocial factors facilitating use of cognitive enhancing drugs in education : a qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes / Andrew Robert Heyes, Ian David Boardley

• Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 26 (2019) 4, p. 329-338
• DOI:10.1080/09687637.2019.1586831
• Special Issue: Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement

Abstract

Illicit use of prescription drugs (e.g. modafinil) to enhance academic performance – termed cognitive enhancement (CE) – is a legal, health, and ethical issue. Guided by Bandura’s social cognitive theory of moral thought and action, this study investigated whether student users of CE evidenced specific psychosocial mechanisms (i.e. mechanisms of moral disengagement) when explaining their reasons for CE. Following ethical approval from the lead author’s institution, in-depth-semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine students with experience of CE. Data were content analysed deductively, using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement; six of the eight mechanisms were identified through data analysis: diffusion of responsibility (DR), advantageous comparison (AC), distortion of consequences (DCs), displacement of responsibility, moral justification, and euphemistic labelling. In addition, inductive data analysis identified three further themes; self-medication, family and friends, and institutional position. Overall, the study findings suggest students may morally disengage to justify and rationalise use of CE to minimise negative emotional responses (e.g. guilt) that may be expected to result given the potential legal-, health-, and ethics-based deterrents to CE.

In December 2022 the Royal Dutch Billiards Federation (KNBB) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Belgian billiard player after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Mesterolone.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Person filed a statement in his defence and waived his right for a hearing. The case was settled by the ISR-KNBB Disciplinary Committee based on the written submissions of the parties.

The Person admitted the violation, accepted the test result en denied the intentional use of the substance. He recognized his fault and asserted that he had cooperated with the proceedings.

With evidence he demonstrated that the substance was used as medication to fulfil his desire to have children. Eight years ago for his first attempt to have childeren the Mesterone had also been used as prescribed medication.

Because prior he had been unware that the substance was prohibited the Person thereupon made an application for a retrospective TUE after the positive test. However this TUE application was rejected by NADO Flanders.

The Doping Authority Netherlands accepted that the Person's violation was not intentional and deemed that there are no grounds for a further reduced sanction.

The Doping Authority acknowledged that in August 2022 the KNBB and the Person not had been timely notified about the positive test. Because of this failure it proposed to start the Person's sanction on 6 August 2022.

The Disciplinary Committee finds that the presence of a prohibited substance has been established in the Person's sample and accordingly that he committed an anti-doping rule violation.

The Committee determines that the Person's anti-doping rule violation was not intentional and that he had demonstrated how the substance had entered his system. However the Committee establishes that the Person had failed to check his medication, it was also used unprescribed and his retrospective TUE application was dismissed by NADO Flanders.

The Committee agrees that the imposed sanction can start backdated on 6 August 2022 because the KNBB could have ordered timely a provisional suspension on that date. However the KNBB, nor the Person, had been notified timely on that date by the Doping Autoritiy about the positive test.

Therefore the ISR-KNBB Disciplinary Committee decides on 5 September 2023 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Person, starting backdated on 6 August 2022, without disqualification of his results.

Fees and expenses for this committee shall be borne by the Person.

Related cases:

• CCES 2022 CCES vs Donovan Burgmaier (1)
  March 15, 2022
• CCES 2022 CCES vs Donovan Burgmaier (2)
  April 26, 2022
  
  

In May 2023 the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) reported a new anti-doping rule violation against the football player Donovan Burgmaier after his sample again tested positive for the prohibited substance Dehydrochlormethyltestosterone.

The Athlete is already serving two consecutive three year periods of ineligibility for his previous violations for presence and admitted use until 26 January 2028.

Following notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by CCES. Because he signed and submitted the Early Admission and Acceptance Form he received a 1 year reduction from CCES for his second anti-doping rule violation.

Therefore CCES decides on 30 May 2022 to impose a 7 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date the Athlete's 6 year period of ineligibility shall end, i.e. on 26 January 2028 until 26 January 2035.

In June 2023 the Athletics Integrity Unit (AIU) on behalf of World Athletics reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Ethiopian Athlete Ana Ebesie Ayele Balcha after her sample tested positive for prohibited Testosterone metabolites and adiols.

Following notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete could not explain the positive test result and accepted the consequences.

Ultimately in August 2023 the Athlete gave a timely admission, waived her right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by the AIU.

Because the Athlete had signed and submitted the Admission of Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Acceptance of Consequences Form she received a 1 year reduction from the AIU.

Therefore the AIU decides on 22 August 2023 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 12 December 2022.

In May 2023 the South African Institute for Drugfree Sport (SAIDS) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the Athlete Tebogo Tsotetsi after her sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Salbutamol.

Following notification a provisional suspension was accepted, yet thereupon she continued to participate into a Marathon. The Athlete filed a statement in her defence and was heard for the Anti-Doping Tribuanl Hearing Panel.

The Athlete admitted the violation and denied the intentional use of the substance. She explained that at the material time she had used a cough syrup for her illness while she was unaware that this product contained Salbutamol.

The Athlete acknowleged that she had been negligently with her self-medication and had not mentioned all her medication on the Doping Control Form. She asserted that she is only a recreational Athlete and had never received anti-doping education.

SAIDS accepted that the Athlete's violation was not intentional and that she had acted negligently with grounds for a reduced sanction.

In view of the evidence the Panel agrees that the Athlete's violation was not intentional. Furhter the Panel determines that, as a recreational Athlete, she had acted with a degree of No Significant Fault or Negligence.

Therefore the Panel decides on 15 August 2023 to impose a 20 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the decision.

In June 2022 the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) reported an anti-doping rule violation against the soccer player Osaze De Rosario after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cannabis.

Following notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing and accepted the sanction proposed by CCES. Because the use of Cannabis occurred out-of-competition and the Athlete completed an approved Substance of Abuse treatment program he received a reduced sanction from CCES.

Therefore CCES decides on 14 August 2023 to impose a 1 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on 4 August 2023.

On 18 October 2022 the South African Institute for Drugfree Sport (SAIDS) reported an anti-doing rule violation against the South African boxer Zolani Tete after his A and B samples tested positive for the prohibited substance Stanozolol. The samples had been provided by the Athlete in Wembley in London on 2 July 2022 after a boxing match.

Following notification in October 2022 a provisional suspension was ordered while results management authority was referred to United Kingdom Anti-Doping (UKAD) in January 2023. The Athlete filed a statement in his defence and he was heard for the National Anti-Doping Panel (NADP).

The Athlete admitted the violation, accepted the test results and denied the intentional use of the substance. He assumed that contamination had caused the positive test results.

However the Athlete's attempts to find the source of the prohibited substance were unsucessful. Analysis of a supplement in question and his nail clippings in a laboratory revealed no prohibited substances.

In this case the Panel is troubled that there had been substantial delays attributed to the London Laboratory, SAIDS and UKAD. Because the Athlete was notified 3½ months after the sample collection this delay effected his opportunity to produce corroborating evidence in his defence.

Following assessment of the evidence the Panel concludes that the Athlete failed to demonstrate that the violation was not intentional, nor how the substance had entered his system. The Panel finds that there is lack of evidence in favour of the Athlete whereas the evidence is more consistent with a plausible motivation for using Stanozolol.

Considering the Athlete's conduct the Panel deems that he had acted with significant fault and negligence. Further the Panel already had determined that there had been substantial delays in this case not attributed to the Athlete.

Therefore the Panel decides on 9 August 2023 to impose a 4 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting backdated on 30 July 2022.

In July 2023 Drug Free Sport New Zealand (DFSNZ) reported an anti-doping rule violations against the rugby player Isaia Walker-Leawere after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cannabis in a concentration above the WADA threshold.

After notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right to be heard, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by DFSNZ.
The parties in this case reached an agreement and filed a joint memorandum in relation to the sanction for approval into a decision of the New Zealand Rugby Union Judicial Committee.

The Judicial Committee considers that the Athlete gave a prompt admission about his out-of-competition use of Cannabis. Further the Committee considers that the Athlete completed a Substance of Abuse treatment programme approved by DFSNZ.

Therefore the New Zealand Rugby Union Judicial Committee decides on 4 August 2023 to impose a 1 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete, ending on 5 August 2023.

iNADO Update (2023) 7/8 (27 July)
Institute of National Anti-Doping Organisations (iNADO)

Contents:

Improving Practice Everywhere

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• Anti-Doping Norway's 20th Anniversary Seminar: Strengthening Justice and ADO Governance for the Future of Anti-Doping
• New Signatories of the Guiding Principles for the Future of Anti-Doping
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Speaking up for NADOs and RADOs Globally

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In March 2023 the Canadian Centre for Ethics in Sport (CCES) has reported an anti-doping rule violation against the weightlifter Jean-Christophe Blanchet after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Higenamine.

After notification the Athlete gave a prompt admission, waived his right for a hearing, accepted a provisional suspension and the sanction proposed by CCES. Because the Athlete signed and submitted the Early Admission and Acceptance Form he received a 1 year reduction from CCES.

Therefore CCES decides on 27 July 2023 to impose a 3 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete, starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 23 March 2023.