Mol, Annemarie. Moderation or satisfaction? Food ethics and food facts
In: Vandamme, Sofie; van de Vathorst, Suzanne & de Beaufort, Inez: Whose Weight is it Anyway? Essays on Ethics and Eating, Acco Academic Publishers, page 121-312.

The morality incorporated in food advice, especially in food advice meant to prevent obesity, is that eaters should be moderate. What might one say about this, in ethical mode? Is being moderate to be defended on ethical terms, or is calling for moderation moralistic and intrusive and should eaters be liberated from health advisors? In my contribution to the discussion about this nagging question, I will not offer an answer, but argue that it may not be the right question. In doing so, I will draw out the facts incorporated similarly in calls for moderation and in the anti-moralist revolts against them. Why build on these particular facts and not others? There are ever so many facts to do with food and they tend to come with different values attached. The different repertoires that make up nutrition science, have different ways of framing reality and seeking interference. And while moderation (or thrift) is central to one repertoire of fact-values to do with food, satisfaction (following on from pleasure) is central to another. This difference is linked up with different understandings of what a human body is. In calls for ‘moderation’, the human body is cast a greedy beast. To tame this beast, Man’s rational faculties, that is his will and his cognition, have to take control. In the repertoire where ‘satisfaction’ is appreciated as a good, bodies do not need to be controlled but deserve to be trained. As embodied beings, or such is the idea, we gradually develop our sensitivities in interaction with our surroundings. The art, then, is not to suppress our bodies, but to develop a good taste.

Molecular Effects of Supraphysiological Doses of Doping Agents on Health / Esther Imperlini, Annamaria Mancini, Andreina Alfieri, Domenico Martone, Marianna Caterino, Stefania Orrù, Pasqualina Buono. - (Molecular BioSystems 11 (2015) 6 (June); p. 1494-1506).

• PMID: 25787095.
• DOI: 10.1039/c5mb00030k

Abstract

Performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) gained wide popularity not only among sportsmen but also among specific subsets of population, such as adolescents. Apart from their claimed effects on athletic performance, they are very appealing due to the body shaping effect exerted on fat mass and fat-free mass. Besides the "underestimated" massive misuse of PEDs, the short- as well as long-term consequences of such habits remain largely unrecognized. They have been strictly associated with serious adverse effects, but molecular mechanisms are yet to be elucidated. Here, we analyze the current understanding of the molecular effects of supraphysiological doses of doping agents in healthy biological systems, at genomic and proteomic levels, in order to define the molecular sensors of organ/tissue impairment, determined by their misuse. The focus is put on the anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs), specifically testosterone (T) and its most potent derivative dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and on the peptide hormones, specifically the growth hormone (GH) and the insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). A map of molecular targets is defined and the risk incidence for human health is taken into account.

Molecularly Imprinted Nanoparticles Assay (MINA) in Pseudo ELISA: An Alternative to Detect and Quantify Octopamine in Water and Human Urine Samples / Ewa Moczko, Richard Díaz, Bernabé Rivas, Camilo García, Eduardo Pereira, Sergey Piletsky, César Cáceres. - (Polymers (Basel) 11 (2019) 9 (13 September); p. 1-13).
- PMID: 31540212.
- DOI: 10.3390/polym11091497

Abstract

In 2004, octopamine was added to the list of drugs banned by the world anti-doping agency (WADA) and prohibited in any sport competition. This work aims to develop a new analytical method to detect octopamine in water and human urine samples. We proposed a pseudo-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (pseudo-ELISA) by replacing traditional monoclonal antibodies with molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (nanoMIPs). NanoMIPs were synthesised by a solid-phase approach using a persulfate initiated polymerisation in water. Their performance was analysed in pseudo competitive ELISA based on the competition between free octopamine and octopamine-HRP conjugated. The final assay was able to detect octopamine in water within the range 1 nmol·L-1-0.1 mol·L-1 with a detection limit of 0.047 ± 0.00231 µg·mL-1 and in human urine samples within the range 1 nmol·L-1-0.0001 mol·L-1 with a detection limit of 0.059 ± 0.00281 µg·mL-1. In all experiments, nanoMIPs presented high affinity to the target molecules and almost no cross-reactivity with analogues of octopamine such as pseudophedrine or l-Tyrosine. Only slight interference was observed from the human urine matrix. The high affinity and specificity of nanoMIPs and no need to maintain a cold chain logistics makes the nanoMIPs a competitive alternative to antibodies. Furthermore, this work is the first attempt to use nanoMIPs in pseudo-ELISA assays to detect octopamine.

Moral disengagement and associated processes in performance-enhancing drug use : a national qualitative investigation / Ian D Boardley, Jonathan Grix, Andrew James Dewar. - (Journal of Sports Sciences 32 (2014) 9 (7 April); p. 836-844)

• PMID: 24405120
• DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2013.862842

Abstract

This study investigated psychosocial processes associated with avoidance of health- and morality-based deterrents to performance-enhancing drug (PED) use. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 64 English male bodybuilders with experience of doping. Resultant data were content analysed deductively using definitions for the eight mechanisms of moral disengagement (MD; Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development: Theory research and applications (pp. 71-129). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.), and three further themes from Boardley and Grix (2013. Doping in bodybuilders: A qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health. Advance online publication, doi 10.1080/2159676X.2013.766809). These analyses evidenced six MD mechanisms, and all three of the themes from Boardley and Grix (2013. Doping in bodybuilders: A qualitative investigation of facilitative psychosocial processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise, and Health. Advance online publication). Subsequent frequency analyses revealed six of the eight MD mechanisms, and two of the three additional themes, were common across the sample. Overall, the findings suggest MD may help athletes circumvent health- and morality-based deterrents to doping, describe a process linking supplement and PED use and detail how some athletes may actively avoid social censure for doping by only discussing PED use with other PED users from within their training environment.

Moral disengagement and doping / Maria Kavussanu

• Published in: The psychology of doping in sport / V. Barkoukis, L. Lazuras, H. Tsorbatzoudis (Eds.). - Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2016. - (Part 3: Ethical aspects and implications in doping use and control; p. 151-164)
• ISBN 9781138705197

Abstract

The focus of this chapter is on this construct as applied to doping. The chapter starts by briefly outlining the main tenets of social-cognitive theory as they pertain to moral disengagement and describes the moral disengagement mechanisms. Next, the instruments that measure this construct and have been used in doping research are briefly discussed, followed by a review of quantitative studies examining moral disengagement and doping variables in athletes. Finally, qualitative studies in bodybuilders are reviewed, and the chapter ends with some concluding remarks.

More than unnatural masculinity : Gendered and queer perspectives on human enhancement drugs / Kathryn (Kate) Henne, Bridget Livingstone

Published in: Human Enhancement Drugs. - Routledge, 2019. - (Chapter 2; p. 13-26)

• DOI: 10.4324/9781315148328-2

Description

Popularized discourses surrounding human enhancement drugs often evoke gendered beliefs that frame this form of drug use as an unnatural pursuit of heightened masculinity. Not only is this form of drug use commonly associated with enhanced musculature, but it is also often presented as having aggressive side effects. Accordingly, many portrayals that reflect these embedded beliefs offer reductionist depictions of the diverse practices of human enhancement. This chapter departs from common perceptions to consider critically how gendered and sexualized norms inform understandings of human enhancement drug use in society. It builds upon earlier feminist and queer arguments that the study of gendered issues requires engaging questions of sexuality, as well as other interrelated formations of inequality. To do so, this chapter reflects on empirical research and critical theoretical perspectives, focusing on gendered and queer approaches that can aid in deconstructing the use of such drugs and societal anxieties about them. It contends that widespread concerns about human enhancement drugs being unnatural—and in turn seemingly unhealthy—are inextricably linked to heteronormative ideologies. It also illuminates how different feminist and queer perspectives can aid in destabilizing tacit assumptions about human enhancement drugs and their use.

Motives and Correlates of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use With Stimulant Polypharmacy / Renee Zahnow, Jim McVeigh, Geoff Bates, Adam R. Winstock. - (Contemporary Drug Problems (2020) 22 April). - DOI: 10.1177/0091450920919456

Abstract

Individuals who use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) may engage in concurrent psychoactive drug use recreationally and/or as an additional training aid. Aside from cannabis, individuals who use AAS most commonly report concurrent use of stimulants such as amphetamines and cocaine. In this study, we examine demographic characteristics, frequency of heavy drinking, and nightclubbing in a sample of 993 men from the Global Drug Survey 2015 who reported both AAS and psychoactive drug use before exploring the relationship between motivation for AAS use and the propensity to concurrently engage with stimulant-type substances. Results of a logistic regression analysis suggest that the propensity for concurrent use of AAS and stimulants is greater when AAS use is motivated by weight loss goals, while performance goals are associated with reduced odds of concurrent stimulant use. Identifying individuals who are at risk of polydrug use and associated harms can inform targeted harm reduction strategies.

Motives for illicit use of doping substances among athletes calling a national antidoping phone-help service : an exploratory study / Jean Bilard, Gregory Ninot, Denis Hauw. - (Substance Use & Misuse 46 (2011) 4; p. 359-367)

• PMID: 20735214
• DOI: 10.3109/10826084.2010.502553

Abstract

This study aimed to construct a hierarchy of motives linked to doping behaviors. Between 2000 and 2005, calls to a national antidoping phone-help service by 115 cyclists, 203 bodybuilders, and 40 footballers were analyzed. The results showed that the main motives were preserving health for cyclists, increasing muscular strength for bodybuilders, and personal recreation for footballers. However, in contrast to the literature, group influence was low and health preoccupations were high for cyclists; the influence of body image was relatively low for bodybuilders; and footballers cited muscular strength enhancement as a motive. The study's limitations are noted. The prevention campaigns therefore need to be specific.

Related case:

UKAD 2021 UKAD vs Dr Richard Freeman
July 20, 2023

Dr Richard Freeman is a former sports physician known for his work with British Cycling and Team Sky.

Following investigations United Kingdom Anti-Doping (UKAD) established that Dr Freeman in May 2011 had ordered 30 sachets of Testogel (Testosterone gel). These 30 sachets had been delivered to the National Cycling Centre in Manchester and were addressed to Dr Freeman.

Thereupon UKAD established that Dr Freeman had provided false statements about the purpose of the Testogel. Dr Freeman claimed that the Testogel was used as treatment for a 'non-rider' patient and that the Testogel had been returned to the supplier for destruction.

Consequently in December 2020 UKAD reported two anti-doping rule violations against Dr Freeman for possession of Testogel in 2011 and for Tampering in 2017 by providing false statements to UKAD in respect of ordering the Testogel.

After notification a provisional suspension was ordered. In April 2017 UKAD made a referral to the General Medical Council (GMC) in respect of UKAD's concerns relating to Dr Freeman's conduct and fitness to practise.

On 12 March 2021 the Medical Practitioners Tribunal Service (MPTS) determined that Dr Freeman had ordered Testogel and had lied to UKAD whilst under investigation. As a result the MPTS decided to erase Dr Freeman from the General Medical Council's Medical register.

Taking all these matters into account, the Tribunal considered that Dr Freeman’s behaviour is fundamentally incompatible with continued registration. The Tribunal has therefore determined that erasure is the only sufficient sanction which would protect patients, maintain public confidence in the profession and send a clear message to Dr Freeman, the profession and the public that his misconduct constituted behaviour unbefitting and incompatible with that of a registered doctor.

Hereafter the High Court dismissed on 16 January 2023 Dr Freeman's Appeal and confirmed the Appealed MPTS Decision. Thereupon UKAD could resume its investigations and the National Anti-Doping Panel (NADP) could conclude its proceedings against Dr Freeman.

Multi residue screening of intact testosterone esters and boldenone undecylenate in bovine hair using liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry / Michel W.F. Nielen, Johan J.P. Lasaroms, Patrick P.J. Mulder, Johan Van Hende, J. Hans A. van Rhijn, Maria J. Groot

• Journal of Chromatography B 830 (2006) 1 (2 January), p. 126-134
• PMID: 16301005
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.10.028

Abstract

The abuse of esters of natural androgenic steroids in cattle fattening and sports is hard to control via routine urine testing. The esters are rapidly hydrolysed in vivo into substances which are also endogenously present in urine. In veterinary control strange findings of 17beta-testosterone and 17alpha-testosterone in urine are often ignored because of the lack of statistically sound reference data of naturally occurring levels. An interesting alternative for inconclusive urine analyses in veterinary control can be provided by the analysis of the administered steroids themselves, i.e. the analysis of intact steroid esters in hair. Unfortunately, the analysis of intact steroid esters is complicated not only by the vulnerability of the esters which precludes alkaline hydrolysis of the hair, but also by the wide polarity range of short and long-chain esters yielding very poor recoveries for either the one or the other. In this study, a multi-steroid esters LC/MS/MS screening method is presented for trace analysis of the synthetic intact esters of 17beta-testosterone and the undecylenate ester of 17beta-boldenone in bovine hair. The method, requiring only 200 mg of pulverised hair, features a mild digestion procedure using tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloride (TCEP) and the use of four deuterium-labelled steroid esters as internal standards covering the wide polarity range of the analytes. In spiked hair samples for most of the analytes the limit of detection and the accuracy using isotope dilution were 2-5 ng/g and 97-105%, respectively. The applicability was demonstrated using hair samples from a controlled experiment in which six bovines were injected intramuscularly with two different doses of two commercial mixtures of testosterone esters, and with two different doses of boldenone undecylenate. Depending on the dose all administered testosterone- and boldenone esters were found to be incorporated in bovine hair following a single intramuscular injection, except testosterone propionate which dose might have been too low.