Muscle Dysmorphia and Personality Trait : A Significant Link in Bodybuilders / Jaspal Singh Sandhu, Sai Kishore, Shweta Shenoy, Harwinder Singh Randhawa. - (Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, Education and Research 47 (2013) 2 (April-June); p. 77-82)

• DOI: 10.5005/JP-JOURNALS-10028-1060

The purpose of this study was to test for significant link between personality trait and muscle dysmorphia in bodybuilders. A total of 212 bodybuilders filled the muscle dysmorphia inventory of which 44.3% (n = 94) were found to be muscle dysmorphic. Their personality traits assessed using eysenck personality profiler in the vienna testing system machine revealed 65% of muscle dysmorphic bodybuilders being predominantly oriented toward extroversion type of personality. Further statistical analysis revealed, the significance between the muscle dysmorphia inventory and the personality traits and its results are discussed. Estimating the prevalence and categorizing based on personality has rather opened a new gateway to identify such vulnerable men who are susceptible to their own drive for muscularity.

Muscle dysmorphia and psychopathology : Findings from an Italian sample of male bodybuilders / Claudio Longobardi, Laura Elvira Prino, Matteo Angelo Fabris, Michele Settanni

• Psychiatry Research 256 (October 2017), p. 231-236
• PMID: 28646788
• DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.065

Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the risk of muscle dysmorphia and psychopathological symptoms in an Italian sample of male bodybuilders.

Method: The sample was recruited online (145 men with a mean age of 30.0 years) and participants were asked to fill out the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI), Symptom Cheklist-90-R (SCL-90-R), Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES-II), and to provide other socio-demographic data. Bodybuilders at risk of muscle dysmorphia display greater global psychopathology and present higher scores on all SCL-90-R dimensions when compared to bodybuilders not at risk of muscle dysmorphia. Furthermore, risk of muscle dysmorphia is positively associated to dissociative symptoms. The Competitiveness dimension and anabolic steroid intake were not related to muscle dysmorphia, while age appeared to be more significant. Findings are discussed based upon previous studies and directions for future research are suggested.

Muscle dysmorphia and self-esteem in former and current users of anabolic-androgenic steroids / Charlotte W. Greenway, Clare Price. - (Performance Enhancement & Health 7 (2020) 3-4 (March); p. 1-9)

• DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2019.100154

Highlights

• AAS use within the UK is on the rise.
• It is estimated that as many as 10 % of male gym-goers in the UK experience Muscle dysmorphia.
• Low self-esteem leads to AAS use in both current and former users.

Muscle Dysmorphia Symptomatology and Associated Psychological Features in Bodybuilders and Non-Bodybuilder Resistance Trainers : A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis / Lachlan Mitchell, Stuart B. Murray, Stephen Cobley, Daniel Hackett, Janelle Gifford, Louise Capling, Helen O’Conno. – (Sports medicine (31 May 2016) : p. 1-27)

• PMID: 27245060
• DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0564-3

Abstract:

Background:
Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is associated with a self-perceived lack of size and muscularity, and is characterized by a preoccupation with and pursuit of a hyper-mesomorphic body. MD symptoms may hypothetically be more prevalent in bodybuilders (BBs) than in non-bodybuilder resistance trainers (NBBRTs).

Objective:
Our objective was to compare MD symptomatology in BBs versus NBBRTs and identify psychological and other characteristics associated with MD in these groups.

Methods:
We searched relevant databases from earliest record to February 2015 for studies examining MD symptoms in BBs and/or NBBRTs. Included studies needed to assess MD using a psychometrically validated assessment tool. Study quality was evaluated using an adapted version of the validated Downs and Black tool. We calculated between-group standardized mean difference (effect sizes [ESs]) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for each MD subscale, and performed meta-analysis when five or more studies used the same MD tool. We also extracted data describing psychological or other characteristics associated with MD.

Results:
Of the 2135 studies initially identified, 31 analyzing data on 5880 participants (BBs: n = 1895, NBBRTs: n = 3523, controls: n = 462) were eligible for inclusion, though study quality was generally poor-moderate (range 7-19/22). Most participants were male (90 %). Eight different MD assessment tools were used. Meta-analysis for five studies all using the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) revealed there was a medium to large pooled ES for greater MD symptomatology in BBs than in NBBRTs on all MDI subscales (ES 0.53-1.12; p ≤ 0.01). Competitive BBs scored higher than non-competitive BBs (ES 1.21, 95 % CI 0.82-1.60; p < 0.001). MD symptoms were associated with anxiety (r 0.32-0.42; p ≤ 0.01), social physique anxiety (r 0.26-0.75; p < 0.01), depression (r 0.23-0.53; p ≤ 0.01), neuroticism (r 0.38; p < 0.001), and perfectionism (r 0.35; p < 0.05) and were inversely associated with self-concept (r -0.32 to -0.36; p < 0.01) and self-esteem (r -0.42 to -0.47; p < 0.01).

Conclusions:
MD symptomatology was greater in BBs than in NBBRTs. Anxiety and social physique anxiety, depression, neuroticism, and perfectionism were positively associated with MD, while self-concept and self-esteem were negatively associated. It remains unclear whether these characteristics are exacerbated by bodybuilding, or whether individuals with these characteristics are attracted to the bodybuilding context.

Muscle Dysmorphia, Self-esteem, and Loneliness among Gay and Bisexual Men / Michael P. Chaney. - (International Journal of Men's Health 7 (2008) 2 (Summer); p. 157-170)

• DOI: 10.3149/jmh.0702.157

Abstract

Although past research indicates gay and bisexual men are more concerned with muscularity than their heterosexual counterparts, studies investigating psychosocial factors contributing to muscle dysmorphia (MD) among gay and bisexual men are limited. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-esteem, loneliness, and MD among gay and bisexual men. Participants (N = 304) completed the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS), Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES), and UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-version 3). A relationship among self-esteem, loneliness, and MD was found. Gay and bisexual men who reported more symptoms of MD also reported lower self-esteem and increased feelings of loneliness, than men who reported fewer MD symptoms. Psychological and environmental variables associated with gay and bisexual men are explored to help explain these results. Implications for future MD research among other oppressed populations also are discussed.

Muscle dysmorphia : a critical review of the proposed criteria / Bryan Chung. - (Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 44 (2001) 4 (Autumn); p. 565-574)

• PMID: 11600802
• DOI: 10.1353/pbm.2001.0062

Abstract

While body-image related disorders such as anorexia nervosa have focused on thinness, only recently have clinical criteria for a disorder that centers around muscularity--muscle dysmorphia--been proposed. An individual affected by muscle dysmorphia is overly concerned with his or her degree of muscularity. This preoccupation is manifested in the individual's behavior (excessive weight lifting, excessive attention to diet, social impairment). This article examines the historical aspects and proposed criteria for muscle dysmorphia and contrasts them with those of anorexia nervosa. While the authors of the proposed criteria have suggested that muscle dysmorphia be classified as a subcategory of body dysmorphic disorder, both the historical and clinical aspects of this syndrome are more consistent with its classification as an obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Muscle Dysmorphia : An Overview of Clinical Features and Treatment Options / Mitchell L. Cunningham, Scott Griffiths, Deborah Mitchison, Jonathan M. Mond, David Castle, Stuart B. Murray, - (Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 31 (2017) 4; p. 255-271)

• DOI: 10.1891/0889-8391.31.4.255
• PMID: 32755900

Abstract:

An increasing public and empirical focus on male body image indicates that muscularity is a preeminent concern among boys and men. For some, these concerns develop into a complex and disabling psychiatric disorder termed muscle dysmorphia (MD), the hallmark of which is an intense preoccupation regarding one’s (subjectively) insufficient muscularity. Treatment of MD is critical; however, evidence to inform treatment approaches is sorely lacking. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we provide an overview of the clinical features of MD, drawing particular attention to the preoccupation, functional impairment and psychiatric comorbidity associated with the disorder. Second, we discuss and recommend potential treatment directions for MD, including techniques that have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of related disorders, namely, body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders (and anorexia nervosa in particular). Psychotherapeutic techniques, including cognitive restructuring of deleterious perfectionistic and egosyntonic beliefs, and dialectical behavioral techniques to improve the repertoire of emotion regulation skills available to afflicted individuals, are discussed, in addition to sychopharmacological approaches.

Muscle Dysmorphia : An Overview of Clinical Features and Treatment Options / Mitchell L. Cunningham, Scott Griffiths, Deborah Mitchison, Jonathan M. Mond, David Castle, Stuart B. Murray. - (Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 31 (2017) 4; p. 255-271)

• PMID: 32755900
• DOI: 10.1891/0889-8391.31.4.255

Abstract

An increasing public and empirical focus on male body image indicates that muscularity is a preeminent concern among boys and men. For some, these concerns develop into a complex and disabling psychiatric disorder termed muscle dysmorphia (MD), the hallmark of which is an intense preoccupation regarding one's (subjectively) insufficient muscularity. Treatment of MD is critical; however, evidence to inform treatment approaches is sorely lacking. The purpose of this article is twofold. First, we provide an overview of the clinical features of MD, drawing particular attention to the preoccupation, functional impairment and psychiatric comorbidity associated with the disorder. Second, we discuss and recommend potential treatment directions for MD, including techniques that have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of related disorders, namely, body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders (and anorexia nervosa in particular). Psychotherapeutic techniques, including cognitive restructuring of deleterious perfectionistic and egosyntonic beliefs, and dialectical behavioral techniques to improve the repertoire of emotion regulation skills available to afflicted individuals, are discussed, in addition to psychopharmacological approaches..

Muscle nuclei remember to cheat death / L.M. Schwartz. – (Journal of physiology (2013) 24 (25 December) : p. 6133-6134) doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.268243.

Comment on:
A cellular memory mechanism aids overload hypertrophy in muscle long after an episodic exposure to anabolic steroids / Ingrid M. Egner, Jo C. Bruusgaard, Einar Eftestøl, Kristian Gundersen. – (Journal of physiology (2013) 24 (28 October) : p. 6221-6230) doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.264457. Epub 2013 Oct 28.

Myocarditis Associated With Anabolic Steroid Abuse : Report of Two Cases / A. Kerroumi, K. Majdoub, Z. Guennoun, N. Doghmi, M. Cherti. - (IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences 18 (2019) 6 (June); p. 55-61). - DOI: 10.9790/0853-1806075561

Abstract:

It is obvious that the abuse of anabolic steroids to improve physical performance has been widely implicated in several cardiovascular events, especially myocardial infarction; However, according to the literature, there is currently no report describing myocarditis due to the abuse of anabolic steroids to our knowledge, unless animal experiments or Post mortem autopsy which were carried out at young athletes. We report two cases of young bodybuilders who were complaining about chest pain . They did not have traditional cardiovascular risk factors , however they admitted the intermittent abuse of anabolic steroids. In both instances, electrocardiography, blood chemistry ,Transthoracic echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging where performed. Our results support the theory of the cause-effect relationship between anabolic steroid abuse and cardiovascular events, especially their direct cardiac toxicity, by demonstrating myocarditis in both patients through cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.