In March 2014 the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) has reported an anti-doping rule violationa against the cricket player Umaid Asif after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substances Prednisolone and Prednisone. After notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete filed a statement with medical information in his defence and he was heard for the PCB Anti-Doping Tribunal.

The Athlete admitted the violation and explained that he suffered from a medical condition, severe allergic reactions, which requires the use of life saving drugs. He produced prescriptions from hospitals and medical certificates and prescriptions issued by the doctors. He asserted, alternatively, that he bears no fault or negligence.

The Tribunal accepts that the Athlete in this case under the Rules was not required to obtain a TUE under the peculiar circumstances of this case. Also the Tribunal finds that the Athlete acted with No Significant Fault or Negligence as grounds for a reduced sanction.

Therefore the PCB Anti-Doping Tribunal decides on 26 September 2014 to impose a 1 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete starting on the date of provisional suspension, i.e. on 23 March 2014.

In March 2015 the Pakistan Cricket Board had reported an anti-doping rule violation against the cricket player Raza Hasan after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance cocaine.

After notification a provisional suspension was ordered. The Athlete failed to file a statement in his defence, nor did he request for a the hearing.

Without the Athlete's response the PCB Anti-Doping Tribunal decideds on 22 May 2015 to impose a 2 year period of ineligibility on the Athlete starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 24 March 2015.

In November 2017 the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) has reported an anti-doping rule violation against the cricket player Imran Butt after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Pseudoephedrine in a concentration above the WADA threshold. After notification a provisional suspension was ordered and the Athlete filed a statement with evidence in his defence.

The Athlete gave a prompt admission and denied the intentional use of the substance. He explained that he suffered from an acute sore throat and as treatment had used prescribed medication on the recommendations of his team physiotherapist on the day he was tested.

The Tribunal concludes that the Athlete established how the prohibited substance entered his system and that the violation was not intentional. The Tribunal considers the evidence and the Athletes degree of fault in this case and finds that he bears No Significant Fault or Negligence.

Therefore the PCB Anti-Doping Tribunal decides on 9 Januay 2018 to impose a 3 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 7 November 2017.

In July 2018 the Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) has reported an anti-doping rule violation against the cricket player Ahmad Shehzad after his sample tested positive for the prohibited substance Cannabis in a concentration above the WADA threshold. After notification a provisional suspension was ordered and the Athlete filed a statement with evidence in his defence.

The Athlete accepted the test result and denied the intentional use of the substance. He explained that on the day of the match he suffered from a severe nausea and had used medication provided by his wife. Here he was unaware that he had used the medication Dronabinol instead of his usual medicine. The Dronabinol medication was prescribed to his mother who suffered from cancer.

The Tribunal concludes that the Athlete established how the prohibited substance entered his system and that the violation was not intentional. The Tribunal considers the evidence and the Athlete's degree of fault in this case and finds that he bears No Significant Fault or Negligence.

Therefore the PCB Anti-Doping Tribunal decides on 5 October 2018 to impose a 4 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete starting on the date of the provisional suspension, i.e. on 10 July 2018.

Peer Education strategies for promoting prevention of doping in different populations / P. Fallace, P. Aiese, E. Bianco, I. Bolognini, M.P. Costa, R. Esposito, F. Gallé, G. Liguori, R. Pandolfi, C. Pasquarella, G. Savino, F. Valeriani, V. Romano Spica. - (Annali di Igiene 31 (2019) 6 (November/December) ; p. 556-575)

• PMID: 31616900.
• DOI: 10.7416/ai.2019.2316

Abstract

BACKGROUND:
In the field of doping prevention, alongside the traditional functions of repression and control of the phenomenon, educational aspects are becoming increasingly important. Article 18 of the World Anti doping Code obliges the signatories to invest in anti-doping education with the aim of preserving the spirit of sport. The educational commitment should involve young people in health promotion interventions for the prevention of risk behaviors. Therefore, our attention has focused on finding the mechanisms that lead people to make certain behavioral choices.

MATERIAL AND METHODS:
In the context of preventive programs, to counter the doping phenomenon through health promotion programs, the most recognized method is peer education, particularly with adolescents. It is an educational method according to which some members of a group are empowered and trained to carry out specific activities with their peers. It is constituted as an example of equal relationship and finds its basis in cooperation and solidarity with the aim of increasing empowerment and a healthy development of the identity and collective dimension in young people.

RESULTS:

Numerous experts - biologists / nutritionists, hygienists, sports coaches, psychologists, teachers of physical education in secondary schools and other stakeholders have actively participated in the co-construction of a training package aimed at activating cascade training processes on the knowledge and skills of peer education in contexts of youth aggregation, such as schools, gyms, sports associations, social gatherings of all kinds. The path allowed to define a peer education model capable of enabling the participants to activate health promotion interventions for the prevention of doping risk behaviors, each in their own setting.

CONCLUSIONS:
In conclusion, we can say that prevention programs are the more effective the more they are addressed to young people and adolescents and provide interactive and action-oriented interventions. Successful initiatives aim to emphasize the development of life skills and to influence numerous determinants of behavior, including individual attitudes, knowledge, motivations, interpersonal relationships and social norms. If the aim is to act on the change of behavior, the efforts will be more successful if the content of the intervention will give due consideration to the context in which it applies and the target population, involving it and addressing its specific needs and values.

Perceived anabolic–androgenic steroid use is associated with perceived neuroticism / Dominic Sagoe, Kristin Huang, Helge Molde, Cecilie S. Andreassen & Ståle Pallesen. - (Journal of Substance Use 21 (2016) 3; p. 263-267)

• DOI: 10.3109/14659891.2015.1009510

Abstract

Ratings of the perceived personality (Five-Factor Model) of an anabolic–androgenic steroid(s) (AAS) user, an erythropoietin (EPO) user, a protein powder user and a nonuser of these ergogenic aids were investigated. The sample of 328 (236 females) non-substance use participants providing the ratings was students aged 18–52 years. They were drawn from three Norwegian higher education institutions and were randomized to four independent experimental conditions, each comprising a specific scenario/description [food (n = 82), protein powder (n = 83), EPO (n = 83), and AAS (n = 80)] similar in number, age and gender distribution. Participants in all conditions rated their protagonist on the NEO Five-Factor Inventory. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated, consistent with our prediction, that the protagonist who consumed food was perceived as least neurotic whereas the AAS and EPO protagonists were rated similarly on neuroticism. The food and protein powder protagonists were rated similarly on openness albeit higher than the EPO protagonist. The food protagonist was regarded as more agreeable than protagonists of the ergogenic aids. Our findings indicate that perceived AAS use negatively impacts the construal of the perceived user’s personality or social image. Implications of findings are discussed.

Perceptions of assisted cognitive and sport performance enhancement among university students in England / Elisabeth Julie Vargo, Ricky A. James, Kofi Agyemana, Thomas MacPhee, Ross McIntyre, Flaminia Ronca, Andrea Petróczi. - (Performance Enhancement & Health 3 (2014) 2 (June); p. 66-77)

• DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2015.02.001

Abstract

There has been an ongoing research effort to understand the morality of athletes using prescription and illicit drugs to enhance sporting performance. By comparison, perceptions around the ethics of university students using prescription drugs to enhance academic performance (known as cognitive enhancement or neuroenhancement) are less well understood. This study compared how university students responded to the ethical considerations of using performance enhancing substances across sporting and academic contexts. A total of 98 participants from universities in the United Kingdom completed a Brief Implicit Association Test, a brief version of the Performance Enhancement Attitude Scale, an explicit cognitive enhancer attitude assessment and reported their views on four scenarios regarding sports doping and the use of cognitive enhancers by university students. The implicit association did not show a significant polarisation of students’ moral attitudes. Explicit measures showed a stronger disagreement towards doping behaviours. Those professionally involved in sport found chemical enhancement more acceptable than other respondents, suggesting an instrumental viewpoint and a transfer of social knowledge from one domain of drug use to the other. Participants perceived the use of enhancers in sport and education as “cheating” when it affected others, but believed cognitive enhancement could be necessary due to competitiveness of the job market. Results suggest that chemical enhancement was considered acceptable by some student groups. The proportion of the sample knowing someone who used cognitive enhancers (13%) or someone who doped (19%) suggests that substance based performance enhancement may be normalising and increasing in popularity.

Perceptions Of Benefits and Losses Associated With The Use and Discontinuance Of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids Among Male Bodybuilders / Olrich, Tracy W. - (Journal of Personal and Interpersonal 4 (1999) 3; p. 231-242)

• DOI: 10.1080/10811449908409732

Abstract

Research has shown the mesomorphic physique to be the most preferred body type among males. Specifically, the hypermesomorphic physique, which displays extreme muscularity and definition, is the most desired (Tucker, 1983). Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, and Streigel-Moore (1987) concluded that multiple reasons exist for this preference, most notably the intimate ties that exist among societal conceptions of masculinity, the male sex role, and the mesomorphic physique. Bodybuilding has been perceived as an avenue by which males attempt to develop the preferred mesomorphic physique, and, at times, anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) have been ingested as a means for further development. This study entailed in-depth interviews with 10 male bodybuilders, all of whom had taken, or were currently taking, AAS. This article presents the findings of the interviews concerning the perceived benefits of and psychological dependency on AAS. The data, particularly responses concerning psychological dependency, are noted within Mishkind et al.'s framework as a mechanism to avoid loss of muscle strength, muscle mass, and masculinity.

Perceptions of Coach Doping Confrontation Efficacy and Athlete Susceptibility to Intentional and Inadvertent Doping / Ian D. Boardley, Alan L. Smith, Nikos Ntoumanis, Daniel F. Gucciardi, Tyler S. Harris. - (Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports (2019) 30 May; p. 1-15).
- PMID: 31148275.
- DOI: 10.1111/sms.13489

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:
We tested a conceptually-grounded model linking athlete perceptions of strength and conditioning and technical coach doping confrontation efficacy (DCE) with athletes' doping self-regulatory efficacy (SRE), doping moral disengagement (MD), and susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping.

DESIGN:
Cross-sectional, correlational.

METHODS:
Participants were high-level athletes (nmale = 532; nfemale = 290) recruited in Australia (n = 261), the UK (n = 300), and the USA (n = 261). All participants completed questionnaires assessing the variables alongside a variant of the randomized response technique to estimate the prevalence of doping.

RESULTS:
The estimated prevalence of intentional doping in the sample was 13.9%. Structural equation modelling established: (a) perceptions of technical and strength and conditioning coaches' DCE positively predicted doping SRE; (b) doping SRE negatively predicted doping MD; (c) doping MD positively predicted susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping; and (d) the predictive effects of coach perceptions on susceptibility to doping were mediated by doping SRE and doping MD. Multisample analyses demonstrated these predictive effects were invariant between males and females and across the three countries represented.

CONCLUSIONS:
The findings show the conceptually-grounded model to offer extended understanding of how multiple individuals within the athlete support personnel network may influence athlete doping.

Perceptions of legitimacy, attitudes and buy-in among athlete groups : a cross-national qualitative investigation providing practical solutions / April Henning, Paul Dimeo. - University of Stirling, 2018

• Report compiled for the World Anti-Doping Agency Social Science Research Scheme

Abstract

First paragraph: In order to achieve its stated purpose, anti-doping relies on athlete buy-in to its overall goals and methods and their compliance with anti-doping policies. Previous research on athlete behavior focused on ways to induce athletes into compliance. However, the authors of the Sport Drug Control Model hypothesized that athletes views of anti-doping and their resultant behaviors resulted from their first hand experiences with anti-doping (Donovan et al, 2002). These and similar findings supported the hypothesis that the greater the levels of perceived legitimacy of antidoping organizations among athletes, the greater the likelihood athletes would comply with anti-doping policies. A better understanding of which experiences at the policy, agency, and individual levels are viewed positively or negatively can provide a path for improving perceptions of legitimacy among athletes. The purpose of this study is to investigate perceived legitimacy, athletes' attitudes, and buy-in towards anti-doping policies in a selection of national contexts and sports. The overall objective is to provide clear, practical guidance as to how to improve the athlete experience to increase levels of perceived legitimacy of anti-doping organizations and regulations among athletes.