The Ethics of Motivational Neuro-Doping in Sport : praiseworthiness and Prizeworthiness / Hilary Bowman-Smart, Julian Savulescu. - (Neuroethics (2020) 23 July)

• DOI: 10.1007/s12152-020-09445-5

Abstract

Motivational enhancement in sport – a form of ‘neuro-doping’ – can help athletes attain greater achievements in sport. A key question is whether or not that athlete deserves that achievement. We distinguish three concepts – praiseworthiness (whether the athlete deserves praise), prizeworthiness (whether the athlete deserves the prize), and admiration (pure admiration at the performance) – which are closely related. However, in sport, they can come apart. The most praiseworthy athlete may not be the most prizeworthy, and so on. Using a model of praiseworthiness as costly commitment to a valuable end, and situating prizeworthiness within the boundaries of the sport, we argue that motivational enhancement in some cases can be compatible with desert.

The fight against doping : back on track with blood / Martial Saugy, Neil Robinson, Christophe Saudan. - (Drug Testing and Analysis 1 (2009) 11-12 (November-December); p. 474-478)

• Special Issue: Advances in sports drug testing
• PMID: 20355161
• DOI: 10.1002/dta.93

The efficiency of the fight against doping in the future will evolve drastically in several ways. Although, during the last ten years, testing of urine samples out of competition opened the door for intelligent testing, the real shift toward improvement of the system was the adoption of the blood matrix as the biological sample of choice. When collected properly, blood allows the establishment of individual haematological andhormonal profiles, which are currently the basis of the ‘biological passport’. A simpler collection procedure also permits the evaluation of the prevalence of doping in specific populations of athletes, as is typically done in epidemiology, to establish a risk assessment.

Thanks to modern research tools that combine analytical techniques (mass spectrometry) with informatics, the biological signatures resulting from the administration of a doping substance can indeed be studied atmany differentmolecular levels. Molecular mapping and fingerprinting will certainly be at the heart of all diagnostic sciences in the future and the fight against doping is no exception.

The final frontier of anti-doping : A study of athletes who have committed doping violations / Terry Engelberg, Stephen Moston, James Skinner. - (Sport Management Review 18 (2015) 2 (May); p. 268-279)

• DOI: 10.1016/j.smr.2014.06.005

Abstract

Although the use of banned drugs in sport is not a new phenomenon, little is known about the experiences and perceptions of athletes who have committed anti-doping rule violations. This study qualitatively explored the experiences of 18 athletes (from the sports of bodybuilding, powerlifting, cricket, sprint kayak, rugby league, and swimming) who had committed anti-doping violations. Themes explored included motivations for initiating and maintaining doping, the psychology of doping, deterrents to doping, and views on current anti-doping policy. In most cases doping had started early in their careers. The perceived culture of the sport was considered central to the ‘normalization’ of doping, particularly in bodybuilding. When explaining their decision to dope, athletes engaged in processes or moral disengagement (including advantageous comparison, minimizing consequences and diffusion of responsibility). Ironically, moral arguments were perceived as the most effective deterrents to doping. Findings are discussed in relation to the difficulties in establishing credible deterrents and suggestions for the future development of anti-doping policy.

The First Competitive Video Gaming Anti-Doping Policy and Its Deficiencies Under European Union Law / Colby Stivers. - (San Diego International Law Journal 18 (2016) : p. 263 - 294)

Abstract

This Comment identifies the deficiencies of the ESL anti-doping regime and proposes solutions for compliance with international law. In addition to achieving compliance, the proposed solutions analyzed are selected to serve the values of eSports stakeholders, as well as the philosophical valuesof sports competition as a whole. Section II will identify those stakeholdersand values. Section III will identify and attempt to solve potential noncompliance with EU treaty-based law under the European Convention on Human Rights and resolutions of the Council of Europe. Section IV will identify and propose solutions transposed from traditional sports anti-doping policies that address discrepancies with EU law and serve the identified policy objectives that are unique to eSports.

http://digital.sandiego.edu/ilj/vol18/iss2/4

The forensic response after an adverse analytical finding (doping) involving a selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM) in human athlete / Pascal Kintz. - (Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 207 (2022) January: 114433)

• PMID: 34715583
• DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114433

Abstract

Selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) are a class of drugs presenting identical anabolic properties to anabolic steroids in addition to marked reduced androgenic effects. These drugs have emerged in the doping area within the early 2000's. Ligandrol, ostarine, RAD-140 and andarine are the most popular agents belonging to this class. According to the world anti-doping agency (WADA) prohibited list, SARMs are prohibited at all times (i.e. in and out-of-competition) and are listed under the section S1.2 (other anabolic agents). The compilation of the WADA testing figures reports from 2015 to 2019 has indicated a regular increase of adverse analytical findings (AAF) due to SARMs, particularly with ostarine and ligandrol. The implementation of highly sensitive chromatographic anti-doping analyses has induced high-profile challenges of anti-doping rules violations as athletes have claimed in numerous occasions that contamination was the reason for their AAF. Since the early 2000's, it has been accepted by the Court of Arbitration for Sports (CAS) in Lausanne (Switzerland) that, under some specific circumstances, unusual explanations can be provided to the Panel to explain an AAF. This was the open door for forensic investigations, as it is done in criminal Courts. A forensic approach can include testing for SARMs in food, drinks, but mostly in dietary supplements. As most anti-doping rules violations are only known several weeks after urine collection, this biological matrix is seldom use for further tests, despite the fact that most SARMs can be detected for several weeks in urine. Luckily, hair or nail testing can be a complement to document the claim of the athlete but of course, it cannot be considered as an alternative to urinalysis. This is because a negative hair or nail result cannot exclude the use of the detected drug and cannot overrule the urine result. To date, all methods for SARMs identification in various matrices involve liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry or high-resolution mass spectrometry. The aim of this paper is to review the scientific literature on the analytical possibilities of testing SARMs in dietary supplements, urine and hair or nail clippings after an AAF to document the claims of an athlete or his/her legal team.

The Formation and Development of Illicit Performance and Image Enhancing Drug Markets: Exploring Supply and Demand, and Control Policies in Belgium and the Netherlands : dissertation / Ven, Katinka van de. – Utrecht : Utrecht University Repository, 2016. – X, 246 p., fig., graf., ill, lit., tab.

Original title:

De Vorming en Ontwikkeling van Prestatie- en Uiterlijkbevorderende Drugsmarkten: een Onderzoek naar Vraag en Aanbod, en het Reguleringsbeleid van België en Nederland : proefschrift / Katinka van de Ven. – Utrecht : Universiteit Utrecht, 2016. – X, 246 p. : afb., fig., graf., lit., tab.

• Met Nederlandse samenvatting: p. III-IV

Contents:

- Introduction
- An analysis of the demand for PIEDs and PIED policies in Belgium and the Netherlands
- Theoretical perspectives on illicit drug markets: economic action, networks and cultures
- Methodology: Researching the PIED market
- Markets, cultures and PIEDs: The characteristics of suppliers operating in Belgium and the Netherlands
- ‘Muscling your way up’: Exploring the cultural contours of the PIED markets amongst bodybuilders
- The development and structure of Belgian and Dutch PIED dealing networks
- The Dutch paradise for home producers and the digital ‘gold rush’ in Belgium
- What are the ‘harms’?: Anti-doping, domestic policies and the PIED market
- Conclusion

Abstract:

This research explores the understudied phenomenon of performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) markets by examining the structure and formation of the market for PIEDs in the Netherlands and Belgium. Furthermore, this study aims to understand and analyse the actors that operate in the PIED dealing environment. In particular bodybuilding is adopted as a case study. Finally, this thesis examines how the PIED control system and its application influence these respective markets. Chapter one introduces the global PIED problem, the policy options currently available to deal with it, and its connection to anti-doping and sport. Chapter two begins by reviewing the literature on PIED use and its supply, and reflects on the anti-doping and PIED policies that seek to regulate this market. In chapter three the theoretical contours of this dissertation are developed. Chapter four describes the research methods which form the empirical bases of the findings chapters. Chapter five focuses on the general characteristics of PIED suppliers, and the ways in which the actions of PIED dealers are influenced by the market cultures in which they operate. Chapter six examines the importance of socio-cultural factors in the formation and development of PIED dealing networks within bodybuilding subcultures. Chapter seven analyses and describes the characteristics of the Belgian and Dutch PIED markets, and unravels the complex relationship between the two. Chapter eight explores the illegal production of steroids in the Netherlands and the flourishing Internet trade in Belgium. Chapter nine assesses the harms related to the production and distribution of PIEDs, and accounts for the effects that Belgian and Dutch PIED policies may have on this illicit market. Finally, in chapter ten, the main findings of this dissertation are summarized, future research endeavours are considered and policy implications are drawn from the analysis. This thesis illustrates that social systems of rules and values, and in particular the embeddedness of culture, are important factors in our efforts to comprehend illicit PIED markets. Specifically, ‘the beliefs, norms, ‘tools’, rules and behaviours appropriate to a cultural setting are key factors for understanding the structure of PIED markets and greater attention must be given to the role played by socio-cultural factors in influencing the market behaviour of criminal groups and individuals. Nevertheless, this thesis also demonstrates that it is imperative to examine the production, distribution and use of PIEDs, as embedded within a diverse combination of social, economic and cultural processes. Indeed, the structure and formation of illicit PIED markets are shaped by a variety of factors including the types of PIEDs dealt within them, the characteristics of the users, the social structures which sustain them, the cultural and economic context in which the markets exist, and market forces (e.g. technical innovations, drug policies).

The frequency of doping in elite sport: Results of a replication study / Werner Pitsch, Eike Emrich. - (International Review for the Sociology of Sport 47 (2011) 5 (23 August); p. 559-580)

• DOI: 10.1177/2F1012690211413969

Abstract

The difficulty of measuring the prevalence of doping in elite sport is a recurring topic in the scientific literature on doping. The Randomized Response Technique is a method for asking such embarrassing or even threatening questions while allowing the respondents to answer honestly. It was used to measure the prevalence of doping among German squad athletes by Pitsch et al. (2005, 2007). In a replication study with better sampling control, it was possible to replicate the general trend of the data from the 2005 study. Nevertheless, there are differences in the details between the two sets of findings. An additional explorative analysis reveals that gender has an important impact on doping decisions. Most theories of doping, especially those derived from systems theory or economic game theory address neither the central findings nor the influence of gender. Based on these findings, we will discuss questions of theory development in relation to empirical evidence.

The frequency of formation of a motivated refusal to take androgenic anabolic steroids by men with recreational activity = Частота формирования мотивированного отказа от использования андрогенных анаболических стероидов среди мужчин, занимающихся рекреационной активностью / M.P. Lykhonosov, A.Y. Babenko, V.A. Makarin, Y.N. Fedotov. - (Problems of Endocrinology 65 (2019) 5 (23 November); p. 341-350

• PMID: 32202738
• DOI: 10.14341/probl12108
• Abstract in English, Article in Russian

Abstract

Background: The widespread use of AAS for non-medical purposes is more than often becoming the cause of secondary hypogonadism. The study of the formation of the negative attitude towards the use of AAS among the gym visitors is quite relevant.

Aims: To identify the frequency of the formation of a motivated refusal to continue taking androgenic anabolic steroids among men who voluntarily declared their use.

Materials and methods: The study included 44 men, all users of AAS. There has been estimated the effectiveness of the clinical examination: how ready they were to disclose information about the use of AAS (drugs, doses, regimens, duration) or how much they were aware of the mechanisms of action of AAS and their effects on the body. The participants were also asked to evaluate their psychological and emotional state (on the scale Index of life satisfaction, Hamiltons depression, aggressiveness). The experience of our informational lectures on the topic Risks of using AAS prior to the selection of volunteers for research, anonymous surveys and interviews with potential participants in the clinical trial, the clinical work itself with the selected volunteers, the characteristic features of a medical history and tests that we identified were compared with clinical recommendations for hypogonadism diagnostic (domestic and foreign).

Results: More than 105 gym visitors responded positively to a motivated offer (free medical consultation and laboratory tests) to participate in a clinical study. Based on the results of the individual interview, 54 men (51.4%) who indicated the use of AAS signed an informed consent. 44 volunteers (41.9%) completed all stages of the study. Among them, 32 participants (72.7%) were aware of the mechanisms of action and side effects of AAS. 21 volunteers (47.7%) filled in the scales. The index of life satisfaction was determined as high, equal to 34 [29; 38] points; the index of aggressiveness was higher than the generally accepted standard and composed 27 [25; 29] points, the level of depression corresponded to a mild depressive disorder, equal to 9 [3; 12] points. Over the use of AAS 22.7% (n = 10) of the examined noted an increase in aggressiveness, which they themselves associated with the use of steroids. The clinical symptoms of hypogonadism (decreased libido, erectile dysfunction) after the cancellation of AAS were indicated by 25% (n = 11) of the volunteers and that was one of the reasons they continued to use anabolics. 31.8% (n = 14) of the participants were ready to completely stop using the steroids.

Conclusions: Individual informational interviews aimed at providing knowledge about the negative effects of steroids on the body motivated the desire to stop using them amongst 31.8% of AAS users. The obtained data points out to a developed AAS addiction which requires the involvement of psychiatrists to get rid of it.

Keywords: Abuse of steroids; Steroid-induced hypogonadism; anabolic-androgenic steroids; behavioral features; hypogonadism.

The global epidemiology of anabolic-androgenic steroid use : a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis / Dominic Sagoe, Helge Molde, Cecilie S. Andreassen, Torbjørn Torsheim, Ståle Pallesen. - (Annals of Epidemiology 24 (2014) 5 (May); p. 383-398)

• PMID: 24582699
• DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.01.009

Abstract

Purpose: To estimate the global lifetime prevalence rate of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use and investigate moderators of the prevalence rate.

Methods: A meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis was performed using studies gathered from searches in PsycINFO, PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and Google Scholar among others. Included were 187 studies that provided original data on 271 lifetime prevalence rates. Studies were coded for publication year, region, sample type, age range, sample size, assessment method, and sampling method. Heterogeneity was assessed by the I(2) index and the Q-statistic. Random effect-size modeling was used. Subgroup comparisons were conducted using Bonferroni correction.

Results: The global lifetime prevalence rate obtained was 3.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.8-3.8; I(2) = 99.7, P < .001). The prevalence rate for males, 6.4% (95% CI, 5.3-7.7, I(2) = 99.2, P < .001), was significantly higher (Qbet = 100.1, P < .001) than the rate for females, 1.6% (95% CI, 1.3-1.9, I(2) = 96.8, P < .001). Sample type (athletes), assessment method (interviews only and interviews and questionnaires), sampling method, and male sample percentage were significant predictors of AAS use prevalence. There was no indication of publication bias.

Conclusion: Nonmedical AAS use is a serious widespread public health problem.

The growth hormone response to hexarelin in patients with different hypothalamic-pituitary abnormalities / M. Maghnie, V. Spica-Russotto, M. Cappa, M. Autelli, C. Tinelli, P. Civolani, R. Deghenghi, F. Severi, S. Loche

• Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 83 (1998) 11 (1 November); p. 3886–3889
• PMID: 9814463
• DOI: 10.1210/jcem.83.11.5242

Abstract

We evaluated the GH-releasing effect of hexarelin (Hex; 2 microg/kg, i.v.) and GHRH (1 microg/kg, i.v.) in 18 patients (11 males and 7 females, aged 2.5-20.4 yr) with GH deficiency (GHD) whose hypothalamic pituitary abnormalities had been previously characterized by dynamic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ten patients had isolated GHD, and 8 had multiple pituitary hormone deficiency. All patients were receiving appropriate hormone replacement therapy. Twenty-four prepubertal short normal children (11 boys and 13 girls, aged 5.9-13 yr, body weight within +/-10% of ideal weight) served as controls. MRI studies revealed an ectopic posterior pituitary at the infundibular recess in all patients. A residual vascular component of the pituitary stalk was visualized in 8 patients with isolated GHD (group 1), whereas MRI showed the absence of the pituitary stalk (vascular and neural components) in the remaining 10 patients (group 2), of whom 8 had multiple pituitary hormone deficiency and 2 had isolated GHD. In the short normal children, the mean peak GH response to GHRH (24.8 +/- 4.4 microg/L) was significantly lower than that observed after Hex treatment (48.1 +/- 4.9 microg/L; P < 0.0001). In the GHD patients of group 2, the mean peak GH responses to GHRH (1.4 +/- 0.3 microg/L) and Hex (0.9 +/- 0.3 microg/L) were similar and markedly low. In the patients of group 1, the GH responses to GHRH (8.7 +/- 1.3 microg/L) and Hex (7.0 +/- 1.3 microg/L) were also similar, but were significantly higher that those observed in group 2 (P < 0.0001). In the whole group of patients, a significant correlation was found between the GH peaks after Hex and those after GHRH (r = 0.746; P < 0.0001). In this study we have confirmed that the integrity of the hypothalamic pituitary connections is essential for Hex to express its full GH-releasing activity and that Hex is able to stimulate GH secretion in patients with GHD but with a residual vascular component of the pituitary stalk.