The Promise of Growth Hormone in Sport : Doped or Duped / Ken K. Y. Ho. - (Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism 60 (2019) 6 (November/December); p. 576-581).
- PMID: 31939482.
- DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000187

ABSTRACT

Skeletal muscle is a target tissue of GH. Based on its anabolic properties, it is widely accepted that GH enhances muscle performance in sports. Athletic performance depends on muscle strength and the energy required to power muscle function. The energy required to power muscle function is derived from a continuum of anaerobic and aerobic sources. Molecular and functional studies provide evidence that in muscle GH stimulates the anaerobic and suppresses the aerobic energy system, in turn affecting power-based functional measures in a time-dependent manner. In recreational athletes, GH improves anaerobic capacity but has not been proven to significantly enhance muscle strength, power, or maximum rate of oxygen consumption. GH appears likely to selectively benefit sprint events and not physical performance that depends on strength and endurance.

The pseudoendogenous anabolic steroid 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione does not occur naturally in Rhodiola rosea L. radix and rhizome / Juan Da, Lin Yang, Wan-Ying Wu, De-an Guo, Alexander G. Panossian. - (Phytochemistry Letters
23 (2018) February; p. 155-163)

• DOI:10.1016/j.phytol.2017.12.007

Abstract

Background:

Rhodiola rosea L. roots and rhizome (RRR) extracts are used as dietary supplements for temporary relief of symptoms of stress, such as fatigue, sensation of weakness, and for improvement of mental and cognitive function. RRR containing products are also of interest to sports nutrition experts and antidoping authorities. It has been suggested that nutritional supplements containing Rhodiola rosea extracts be examined for the presence of (pseudo-) endogenous steroids, specifically for the presence of 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD) which can potentially lead to adverse analytical findings (AAFs) in doping controls.

Aim of the study:

The aim of the present study was to detect and quantify ADD in Rhodiola roots and rhizomes collected in various geographical locations of North America, Europe, and Asia.

Results:

ADD was not found in RRR by any of three methods used in this study. No peaks corresponding to ADD in chromatograms of RRR extract were detected at the limit of quantification corresponding to 1.6 ng/g of ADD in dry rhizomes of Rhodiola rosea.

Conclusion:

The anabolic steroid 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione was not detectable in the Rhodiola rosea roots and rhizomes, at least not present in amounts which may be a concern for athletes who want to avoid the consumption of this anabolic agent with Rhodiola dietary supplementation.

The psychological and social factors of risk and protection vis-a-vis doping. A study among callers using a national anti-doping hotline "Ecoute dopage" = Les enquêtes épidémiologiques montrent que le dopage sportif est un phénomène massif en constante augmentation dans nos sociétés / Jean Bilard, J. Birouste, Gregory Ninot, A. Pastor, P. Salas

Nous avons vu qu’une politique de prévention du dopage doit s’attacher à connaître les raisons, les motivations, les comportements, les besoins, les attentes des acteurs et que pour cela, nous devions utiliser toutes les ressources disponibles.

Dans ce but, nous nous sommes proposé d’étudier les facteurs de protection psychosociaux vis-à-vis du dopage dans un corpus de données particulier constitué par les fiches d’entretiens téléphoniques du service « écoute dopage ». Nous avons choisi d’étudier les fiches des appelants adultes hommes non dopés et pratiquant les trois sports les plus représentés dans notre corpus: la musculation, le cyclisme et le football. Le contenu de chaque fiche a été interprété par deux chercheurs afin de dégager le ou  les facteurs de protection sous jacents référés dans la grille de cotation établie à partir des facteurs de protection psychosociaux vis-à-vis du dopage relevés dans la littérature et d’une pré-analyse des fiches d'écoute. Nous avons établi les occurrences de chaque
facteur en fonction de la population globale étudiée et pour les trois types de sports. Parcette recherche exploratoire quantitative et qualitative, nous espérions aboutir à des résultats originaux par rapport à ceux des études épidémiologiques.

Or nos résultats soulignent plutôt la prédominance de facteurs de protection classiques considérés par certains comme peu inefficaces. Notre étude confirme la prévalence du facteur « préoccupation pour la santé » comme protecteur vis-à-vis du dopage et donc l'importance de la prévention par ce canal. Les facteurs « respecter la loi », versant internalisé et «existence de contrôle par l’environnement », apparaissent comme bien plus importants que ne le décrit la littérature. Ils engagent les pouvoirs publics à poursuivre une attitude ferme (sanctions) et répressive (contrôles et investigations de la police). Nos travaux montrent par ailleurs que la "loi" sportive et sociale est un appui fort pour cadrer les conduites de santé même dans les milieux considérés comme peu sensibles (bodybuilders; cyclistes). Nous avons souligné quelques facteurs importants peu mentionnés dans la littérature comme l'attitude dubitative des sportifs vis-à-vis de la connaissance des médecins. Nous avons montré qu'il fallait développer la réflexion critique sur l'efficacité des produits et sur les conduites dopantes (balance risques / effets). Ce dernier point ouvre sur des actions de prévention telles que l'éducation à la santé, la mise en place de groupes de parole mais aussi sur des messages très spécifiques en fonction des sports pratiqués. Nous avons pu ainsi souligner le paradoxe des messages de prévention vis-à-vis des cyclistes axés sur les effets néfastes pour la santé des médicaments (corticoïdes) alors qu'ils en prennent pour rester en bonne santé. De la même manière nous avons vu de quelle façon les 33 anabolisants apparaissent pour les bodybuilders un excellent moyen de se donner une bonne image d'eux mêmes et donc de contribuer à leur santé mentale!

Notre recherche a surtout permis de distinguer des dynamiques différentes autour de la thématique du dopage et d'orienter les actions de prévention à partir du vécu et des représentations de la population sportive. Nous espérons enfin avoir ouvert des pistes de recherche pour des études cliniques complémentaires.

The aims of the project were:
1/ to diagnose attitudes of athletes toward doping and determine if they are influenced by athlete’s age, sex, and kinds of sports discipline practised (individual vs. team sports)
2/ to examine the relationship between goal orientations and attitudes toward doping
3/ to diagnose knowledge about doping among Polish athletes

Knowledge of the athletes about doping and anti-doping policy
Conclusions:
• Knowledge of Polish athletes concerning doping and anti-doping policy is unsatisfactory and its level is related to some socio-demographical variables, like gender, age, branch of sports discipline and length of sports career.
• Relatively better level of knowledge was observed in items concerning awareness of rights and duties of an athlete towards anti-doping controls
• Only minority of respondents drew their knowledge on doping from sources that could be regarded as reliable with reservation that internet which as the second in importance was not described in details (it can be a source of reliable knowledge promoted by anti-doping bodies, like the Polish Commission Against Doping in Sport, as well as source of web sites of doubtful value from the point of view of anti-doping policy)

Attitudes toward doping-free sport and anti-doping policy
Conclusions:
• Direction of attitudes of examined athletes was positive, however its strength is moderate, which calls for more education which should be focused not only on cognitive aspects doping and anti-doping policy, but also on its ethical issues including argumentation in aid of maintaining anti-doping policy.
• The most favourable was attitude toward anti-doping controls, the least - in attitude toward sanctions. This discrepancy was best illustrated by one of the athletes who expressed their opinion in the space provided: “Anti-doping controls should be more frequent but sanctions for taking performance-enhancing drugs should be eased”
• Attitudes turned out to be influenced by some socio-demographical variables, especially gender and age, and not by branch of sport, however, more research is needed in this respect.

Relationship between goal orientations and attitudes toward doping
Conclusions:
• A high task, low ego achievement goal orientation profile is most positively associated with attitudes toward doping and anti-doping policy.
• With increase in task orientation increase, while with increase in ego orientation decrease in strength attitude was observed.
• The results suggest that creating a motivational climate which promotes task orientation may be important not only for maintaining long term motivation toward practising sport and for sportpersonship, but also for attitudes toward doping and anti-doping policy

Context
The mission of WADA is to “promote, co‐ordinate and monitor, on an international basis, the fight against doping in sport in all its forms” (WADA, 2009; p. 2). To further WADA’s anti‐doping initiatives, a Social Sciences Research Grant Program was created to “encourage research in the social sciences and to obtain information, which will enable more efficient doping‐prevention strategies” (p.2).

The present study was funded by the WADA Social Sciences Research Grant Program. The general aims of this project were to:

1. Identify factors that motivate young athletes to use performance enhancing drugs (PEDs)
2. Identify factors that deter young athletes from using PEDs.

Conclusions
The findings of the present research show that there is a clear link between moral functioning, as originally conceptualized by Rest (1984) and attitudes towards PEDs. There is also a clear link
between moral disengagement, as originally conceptualised by Bandura (1991) and attitudes towards PEDs. In short, morality, however it is theoretically conceptualised and operationalised, predicts attitudes to doping.
It is necessary to develop training programs that aim to educate young athletes and thus deter future drug use. However, there are some conceptual issues that should be addressed before embarking on any such efforts. While the current study shows a strong link between morality and attitudes to PEDs, when asked to identify the ‘top of mind’ disadvantages of PED use, the respondents overwhelmingly identified health related problems.
Future research employing measures of morality based on both Rest’s and Bandura’s may be warranted, particularly if placed in a broader framework aiming to develop a reliable and valid measure of morality in sporting contexts. This should clearly include contexts such as PED use.

The relationship between the reading of fitness magazines and conceerns with leanness and muscularity among college men : dissertation / Magdala Peixoto Labre. - Gainesville : University of Florida, 2004

Abstract

The purpose of this dissertation was to gain a better understanding of the relationship between the reading of men’s fitness magazines and concerns related to leanness and muscularity. Previous research had found an association between the reading of these magazines and internationalization of the fit ideal, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder attitudes among college men. However, little was known about the nature of this relationship.

The dissertation combined a quantitative content analysis of Men’s Health and Men’s Fitness magazines published from 1999 to 2003, with qualitative, in-depth interviews with 13 male undergraduates. Findings suggest that fitness magazines disseminate only one type of male physique as healthy, fit, and attractive: the lean and muscular physique, characterized by chiseled abdominal muscles. Dissemination of this ideal may have the positive effect of promoting involvement in healthy activities, such as exercising with weights. However, the ideal is an extreme, unrealistic representation, which may contribute to body dissatisfaction and engagement in unhealthy, appearance-driven pursuits. In fact, few men can achieve the ideal without doing so.

Interviews with college men suggest that they may be internalizing the ideal and engaging in behaviors designed to attain it, such as limiting carbohydrates and/or fat in their diets, increasing consumption of protein, exercising (particularly with weights), and using performance-enhancing supplements such as whey protein, creatine, caffeine, and ephedra to reduce body fat and increase muscle mass. Some of these behaviors, particularly the use of supplements, could lead to serious health problems.

Overall, the interviews did not suggest that exposure to the magazines was a significant factor in motivating either men’s acceptance of the lean and muscular ideal or their involvement in behaviors linked to the pursuit of that ideal. Rather, findings suggest that other influences, such as previous involvement in competitive sports or interactions with friends who engage in these behaviors, may contribute to an interest in body change that precedes the reading of fitness magazines. More research is needed to determine whether—and if so among which readers—exposure to fitness magazines may serve to reinforce existing concerns related to achieving a lean and muscular physique.

The Relevance of Swiss Law in Doping Disputes / Mike Morgan
In: Revue de droit Suisse (Volume 132 (2013), issue 03, p. 341 to 351)

Swiss law does, more often than not, play an important part in the determination of doping disputes. Governing bodies of sport must therefore not lose sight of the fact that Swiss law protects athletes from unlawful infringement of their personality rights. To that end, sanctions imposed on athletes can only be justified where they pursue an overriding public or private interest, are proportionate and do not lead to unequal treatment.

The relevance of the urinary concentration of ephedrines in anti-doping analysis: determination of pseudoephedrine, cathine, and ephedrine after administration of over-the-counter medicaments / Sabina Strano-Rossi, Daniele Leone, Xavier de la Torre, Francesco Botrè. - (Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 31 (2009) 4 (August); p. 520-526)

• PMID: 19571776
• DOI: 10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181ac6006

Abstract

This article describes a method for the detection and quantitation of cathine, pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, and methylephedrine in urine, using their deuterated analogues as internal standards and derivatization to form the corresponding trimethylsilyl derivatives after a simple liquid-liquid extraction. The study was designed to evaluate whether the urinary cutoff values set by the World Anti-Doping Agency for the banned ephedrines (cathine >5 microg/mL, ephedrine and methylephedrine >10 microg/mL) can be exceeded after the normal self-administration of common over-the-counter medicaments containing nonbanned ephedrines. The present method, after validation, has been applied on real urine samples obtained from 9 healthy volunteers taking different doses of over-the-counter preparations containing ephedrines. Results obtained from excretion studies show high interindividual differences in the urinary concentrations of both pseudoephedrine and cathine, not dependent on body weight or sex nor, in some instances, on the administered dose. The same typical therapeutic dose of pseudoephedrine (60 mg) produced a urinary concentration of more than 5 microg/mL for cathine and of more than 100 microg/mL for pseudoephedrine in 2 of 9 subjects only. When a dose of 120 mg was administered, cathine concentration exceeded 5 microg/mL in 4 of 7 subject, and also concentrations of pseudoephedrine above 100 microg/mL. After administration of 5 x 120 mg of pseudoephedrine (120 mg administered every 7 days for 5 weeks) to one of the subjects exceeding the urinary threshold values, the urinary concentration of cathine and pseudoephedrine exceeded 5 microg/mL (peak concentration 14.8 microg/mL) and 100 microg/mL (peak concentration 275 microg/mL), respectively. When the same subject took 180 mg of pseudoephedrine, the urinary concentration values were below 5 microg/mL for ephedrine and 100 microg/mL for pseudoephedrine. In the case of ephedrine administration in a sustained-release formulation containing 12 mg of ephedrine, 2 of 3 subjects exceeded the urinary cutoff value of 10 microg/mL. The high interindividual variability is still significant even if the urinary concentration values are adjusted by specific gravity and/or creatinine. These results confirm a high interindividual variability in the urinary concentration of ephedrines after the administration of the same therapeutic dose of a preparation.

The role of banned substance residue analysis in the control of dietary supplement contamination / Catherine Judkins, Philip Teale and David J. Hall . – In: Drug testing and analysis 2 (2010) vol. 9 (September), p. 417–420

The potential for contaminated dietary supplements to result in a failed doping test remains a concern for athletes, trainers, and sporting authorities despite improvements to regulatory guidelines. Previous surveys of readily available supplements confirm that many are contaminated with steroids and stimulants prohibited for use in elite sport. Suggested responses to this issue include the complete avoidance of all supplements. Many athletes, however, use nutritional supplements to achieve effective training and also to ensure that daily nutritional requirements are met (e.g. recommended levels of vitamins and minerals). This ensures that the use of supplements is and will remain the norm for a range of sports. As a result, an alternative approach of rigorous testing of materials destined for use by elite athletes has been introduced in several countries. While the testing of final product for banned substances may help mitigate the problem, it will not help to remove the underlying issue of contamination. In this article we describe an alternative approach that uses appropriate quality assurance procedures backed up by testing to remove sources of contamination. The decrease in the incidence of contamination amongst supplement companies adopting such a system is explained, and contrasted with the relatively high incidences of contamination found in products that are not part of a quality system. These findings are of key importance to both supplement manufacturers and those involved in advising athletes about supplement use.

The role of comprehensive education in anti-doping policy legitimacy and support among clean athletes / Vassilis Barkoukis, Luca Mallia, Lambros Lazuras, Despoina Ourda, Sara Agnello, Marija Andjelkovic, Konstantin Bochaver, Dirk Folkers, Dmitriy Bondarev, Nenad Dikic, Dennis Dreiskämper, Andrea Petróczi, Bernd Strauss, Arnaldo Zelli

• Psychology of Sport and Exercise 60 (2022) 102173 (May),
• DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102173

Abstract

Objectives

Anti-doping policies represent a group of regulations and procedures that are applied by anti-doping organizations in order to safeguard sports against doping. Evidence implies that, for anti-doping policies to be effective, they need to be endorsed by athletes. Still, there is scarce evidence on the process through which athletes decide to endorse and support anti-doping policies and the role of anti-doping education. The main objective of the study was to empirically examine a behavioural model of active anti-doping policy support.

Methods

A self-reported survey with measures of perceived anti-doping legitimacy, social support via expected obedience, perceived trustworthiness and social cognitive variables associated with anti-doping policy support (attitudes, social norms, descriptive norms, perceived behavioural control, regret, and intention) was completed by 1328 competitive athletes in 6 countries (Germany, Greece, Italy, Russia, Serbia, UK).

Results

Athletes who live in countries with comprehensive (emphasis on individual development and competency with a focus on sport and personal integrity) anti-doping education (ADE) and had received ADE are more supportive of anti-doping policies than athletes from countries with basic education provision anti-doping education (information type education). Furthermore, athletes who received ADE reported significantly higher levels of perceived legitimacy, trustworthiness, and obedience. The results of the SEM revealed that perceptions of legitimacy had both direct and indirect effects on intentions to support anti-doping policies. The effect of perceptions of legitimacy was mediated by social cognitive variables, which demonstrated strong direct effects on intentions. Importantly, the model was invariant across the countries, although mean differences in several constructs emerged.

Conclusions

Anti-doping milieu and education impact athletes’ willingness to support anti-doping policies. Interventions targeting legitimacy beliefs and social cognitive variables can be effective in promoting anti-doping policy support in competitive athletes. These interventions should expand beyond anti-doping policy legitimacy and target the specific beliefs (e.g., norms) that are pertinent to policy support in different countries.

KeywordsAnti-DopingPolicy supportAttitudesDopingLegitimacyClean sport