High on sport : the ethically unjustified inclusion of cannabis on the anti-doping list / Michael Riemersma. – Utrecht : Universiteit Utrecht, 2011-06-17. – Master thesis MA Applied ethics, Universiteit Utrecht. – (Supervisors: Jan Vorstenbosch, Olivier de Hon)

Content:

0. Summary
1. Introduction
1.1 About WADA and the Code
1.2 Cannabis on the anti-doping list
1.3 Definition of sport
2. Is cannabis performance enhancing?
3. The health-argument: a Millian approach
3.1 Cannabis and health
3.2 Cannabis and the harm-principle
3.3 A drug race: harm to the health of competitors
3.4 Cannabis and reckless behavior
3.5 Safety responsibilities of sport organisations
4. Cannabis and the spirit of sport
4.1 WADA‟s definition
4.2 Alternative definition
4.3 Excellence in performance
4.4 Ethics, fair play and honesty
4.5 Athletes as role models
5. Privacy
5.1 A right to privacy
5.2 WADA and privacy
5.3 Cannabis and privacy
6. Doping hunt and resource allocation
6.1 Resources allocation: a moral issue
6.2 Mill‟s Utilitarianism
6.3 The right to health, fairness and equality in sport
6.4 Anti-doping costs
7. Conclusion
References

Anabolic steroids and male infertility : a comprehensive review / Guilherme Leme de Souza, Jorge Hallak. - (BJU International Volume 108 (2011) 11 (December); p. 1860-1865).

• PMID: 21682835.
• DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10131.x

Abstract

What's known on the subject? and What does the study add? The negative impact of AAS abuse on male fertility is well known by urologists. The secondary hypogonadotropic hypogonadism is often highlighted when AAS and fertility are being discussed. On the other hand, the patterns of use, mechanisms of action and direct effects over the testicle are usually overseen. The present study reviews the vast formal and "underground" culture of AAS, as well as their overall implications. Specific considerations about their impact on the male reproductive system are made, with special attention to the recent data on direct damage to the testicle. To our knowledge this kind of overview is absolutely unique, offering a distinguished set of information to the day-by-day urologists. For several decades, testosterone and its synthetic derivatives have been used with anabolic and androgenic purposes. Initially, these substances were restricted to professional bodybuilders, becoming gradually more popular among recreational power athletes. Currently, as many as 3 million anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) users have been reported in the United States, and considering its increasing prevalence, it has become an issue of major concern. Infertility is defined as the failure to achieve a successful pregnancy after 12 months or more of regular unprotected intercourse, with male factor being present in up to 50% of all infertile couples. Several conditions may be related to male infertility. Substance abuse, including AAS, is commonly associated to transient or persistent impairment on male reproductive function, through different pathways. Herein, a brief overview on AAS, specially oriented to urologists, is offered. Steroids biochemistry, patterns of use, physiological and clinical issues are enlightened. A further review about fertility outcomes among male AAS abusers is also presented, including the classic reports on transient axial inhibition, and the more recent experimental reports on structural and genetic sperm damage.

Related case:
JADCO 2011 JADCO vs Simone Forbes
May 1, 2011

On 1 May 2011 the Jamaica Anti-Doping Disciplinary Panel decided to impose a 3 month period of ineligibility on the Athlete Simone Forbes after she tested positive for the prohibited substance clomiphene.

In April 2011 the Athlete appealed the JAD Disciplinary Panel Decision with the JAD Appeals Tribunal. The Athlete argued that the use of the medication was for her medical condition, precribed by her doctor and without intention to enhance her sport performance. In support three persons gave positive affidavits about the Athlete.

The Appeals Tribunal considers that the Athlete had no intention to enhance her performance; the fact that she failed to mention the medication on her Doping Control Form; and also failed to inform her team doctor about her medical treatment.
Due to her negligence the JAD Appeals Tribunal decides to dismiss the Athlete’s appeal and to uphold the decision of the JAD Disciplinary Panel of 1 May 2011.

Facts
The French Motorycling Federation (Fédération Française de motocyclisme, FFM) charges respondent M61 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a motorcycling event on September 12, 2010, a sample was taken for doping control purposes. The analysis of the sample showed the presence of a metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol, the active ingredient of cannabis. Cannabis is a prohibited substance on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list and is regarded as a specified substance.

History
The respondent had used cannabis during a festivity the day before the doping control, there was no intention to enhance sport performances. However the use of cannabis in motor sports creates a dangerous situation for the driver and the crowd.

Decision
1. The sanction is a period of ineligibility of nine months in which in the respondent can't take part competitions and manifestations organized or authorized by the FFM.
2. The period of ineligibility will be reduced with the period already served in by the decision (four months period of ineligibility), dated December 3, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFM.
3. The decision, dated December 3, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFM will be modified.
4. The decision starts on the date of notification.
5. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.

Facts
The French Rugby Federation (Fédération Française de Rugby, FFR) charges respondent M60 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a match on September 26, 2010, a sample was taken for a doping test. The sample tested positive on a metabolite of cannabis which is a prohibited substance according the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list. Cannabis is regarded as a specified substance.

History
The respondent used the cannabis on August 22, 2010, during the celebration of his birthday, he had no intention to enhance his sport performance.

Decision
1. The sanction is a period of ineligibility of four months, in which the respondent can't take part in competition or sports manifestations organized or authorized by the FFR.
2. The period of ineligibility will be reduced by the period already served by the decision (2 months of ineligibility) dated December 8, 2010, by the disciplinary committee of the FFR.
3. The decision dated December 8, 2010, by the disciplinary committee of the FFR will be modified.
4. The decision will start on the date of notification.
5. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.

Facts
The French Cycling Federation (Fédération Française de Cyclisme, FFC) charges respondent M59 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a cycling event on August 26, 2010, a sample was taken for doping test purposes. The sample tested positive on betamethasone, a metabolite of methylphenidate (ritalinic acid) and ephedrine. The substances are prohibited substances according the World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited list. Methylphenidate and ephedrine are regarded as specified substances.

History
The respondent explains that ha had used methylphenidate and ephedrine to regain his sporting level and to lose weight. The bethamethasone was used to treat a pain in his knee, for this he has a medical certificate. There was no intention to improve sport performance.

Decision
1. The sanction in a period of ineligibility of one year in which the respondent can't take part in competition or manifestations organized or authorized by the FFC as pronounced in the decision, dated December 16, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFC but extended to all French sport federations.
2. The decision will start on the date of notification.
3. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.

Facts
The French Motorycling Federation (Fédération Française de motocyclisme, FFM) charges respondent M58 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a motorcycling event on August 22, 2010, a sample was taken for doping control purposes. The analysis of the sample showed the presence of a metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol, the active ingredient of cannabis. Cannabis is a prohibited substance on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list and is regarded as a specified substance.

History
The respondent had used cannabis during a festivity, it was used occasionally. There was no intention to enhance sport performances. However the use of cannabis in motor sports creates a dangerous situation for the driver and the crowd.

Decision
1. The sanction is a period of ineligibility of 9 months in which in the respondent can't take part in competitions and manifestations organized or authorized by the FFM.
2. The period of ineligibility will be reduced with the period already served in by the decision (three months period of ineligibility), dated December 3, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFM.
3. The decision, dated December 3, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFM will be modified.
4. The decision starts on the date of notification.
5. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.

Facts
The French Federation of Billiards (Fédération Française de Billard, FFB) charges respondent M57 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a three cushions billiards tournament on June 11, 2010, a sample for a doping test was taken. The sample tested positive for hydrochlorothiazide which is a prohibited substance according the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list.

History
The respondent had used medication to treat high blood pressure. He has a medical certificate. Regarding his age there was no reason for him to use doping.

Decision
1. The decision (a warning) dated November 6, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFB will not be modified.
2. All results obtained at the match of June 11, 2010, will be cancelled. Medals, points and prizes will be withdrawn.
3. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.

Facts
The French Football Federation (Fédération Française de Football, FFF) charges respondent M56 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a match on March 21, 2010, a sample was taken for doping control purposes. The analysis showed the presence of a metabolite of cannabis. Cannabis is a prohibited substance according the World Anti Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list and is regarded as a specified substance.

History
The respondent didn't provide any information about how the prohibited substance had entered his body. On february 24, 2009, he had received also a sanction for the use of cannabis (period of ineligibility of 2 years).

Decision
1. The sanction is a period of ineligibility of two years in which respondent can't take part in competitions and sporting events organized or authorized by the FFF.
2. The period of ineligibility will be reduced by the period already served by the earlier decision (period of ineligibility of one year), dated December 16, 2010, from the disciplinary committee of the FFF.
3. The earlier decision dated December 16, 2010, of the disciplinary committee of the FFF will be modified.
4. The decision starts on the date of notification.
5. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.

Facts
The French Federation of Weightlifting, Fitness, Powerlifting and Bodybuilding (Fédération Française d'Halterophilie, Musculation, Force Athlétique et Culturisme, FFHMFAC) charges respondent M55 for a violation of the Anti-Doping Rules. During a weightlifting event on June 19, 2010, a sample was taken for doping test purposes. The analysis of the sample showed the presence of methylhexaneamine, boldenone or its metabolites and metandienone or its metabolites, they are prohibited substances according the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) prohibited list.

History
The respondent admits to use of product for fast recovery three days before the weightlifting event.The amount and nature of the supplements he used will count for the sanction.

Decision
1. The sanction is a period of ineligibility for four years in which respondent can't take part in competitions and sport events organized or authorized by the FFHMFAC as pronounced by the disciplinary committee of the FFHMFAC but extended to all relevant French sport federations.
2. The decision starts on the date of notification.
3. The decision will be published and sent to the parties involved.