The athletic characteristics of Olympic sports to assist anti-doping strategies / Gregory Hayward, Lorenzo Gaborini, David Sims, Yorck Olaf Schumacher, Grégoire P. Millet, Damien Rhumorbarbe, Ronan Coquet, Neil Robinson

• Drug Testing and Analysis 14 (2022) 9 (September), p. 1599-1613
• PMID: 35732071
• DOI: 10.1002/dta.3329

Abstract

The determinants of success in Olympic Games competition are specific to the athletic demands of the sporting event. A global evaluation to quantify the athletic demands across the spectrum of the Olympic Games sport events has not previously been conducted. Thus far, the interpretation and the comparison of sport physiological characteristics within anti-doping organisations (ADOs) risk assessments remains subjective without a standardised framework. Despite its subjective assessment, this information is a key component of any anti-doping programme. Sport characteristics inevitably influence the type of substances and/or methods used for doping purposes and should be captured through a comprehensive analysis. Seven applied sport scientists independently conducted an assessment to quantify the athletic demands across six preselected athletic variables. A principal component analysis was performed on the results of the panel's quantitative assessment for 160 Olympic sport events. Sport events were clustered using the Hierarchical Density Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (HDBSCAN) algorithm. The HDBSCAN identified 19 independent cluster groups; 36 sport events remained statistically unassigned to a cluster group representing unique and event-specific athletic demands. This investigation provides guidance to the anti-doping community to assist in the development of the sport specific physiology component of the risk assessment for Olympic Games disciplines. The dominant athletic characteristics to excel in each of these individual events will highlight areas of how athletes may strive to gain a competitive advantage through doping strategies, and inform the development of an effective and proportionate allocation of testing resources.

Susan J. Grossman, MSW, LCSW, Joe Gieck, EdD, ATC, PT, Alan Freedman, MEd, Wei Li Fang, PhD
Journal of Athletic Training Volume 28 * Number 2 * 1993

Alcohol and other drug (AOD) abuse affects every sector of society, and student-athletes are no exception. Because many factors affecting athletes do not affect other students, athletic departments commonly approach prevention through AOD education. Different educational approaches are descriibed in this article, particularly the Athletic Prevention Programming and Leadership Education (APPLE) model.

Project APPLE is designed to enable an athletic department to systematically analyze its AOD prevention in seven areas: recruitment practices, expectations and attitudes, education and AOD programs, polic ies, drug testing, discipline, and referral and counseling. Because athletic trainers often are involved in this process, this article should help them to design more effective AOD programs.

The Availability and Acquisition of Illicit Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Testosterone Preparations on the Internet / J. Abram McBride, Culley C. Carson, Robert M. Coward. - (American journal of men's health 12 (2018) 5 (1 September) ; p. 1352-1357).
- PMID: 27170675.
- PMCID: PMC6142130.
- DOI: 10.1177/1557988316648704
Article first published online: May 11, 2016; Issue published: September 1, 2018

Abstract:

The lifetime prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use in the United States is over 1%. Recent reports have suggested AAS can easily be obtained over the Internet without a prescription, but this has been poorly studied. This study focused on determining the availability and ease of purchase for AAS, testosterone, and other non-AAS therapies on the Internet from the perspective of a typical consumer.

A Google search was performed and the top-ranking sites offering AAS for sale were individually evaluated for selection of AAS offered, the purchasing process, and additional consumer information to support AAS use. The current results revealed that 87% of sites offered commonly used forms of AAS, injectable testosterone, and non-AAS hormone therapies. Seventy-five percent offered at least one postcycle recovery agent and 62% offered at least one erectile dysfunction medication. No site required a prescription for purchase of any substance, 75% accepted common forms of payment including credit card, and all sites were supplied by unregulated international pharmacies providing shipment to home addresses with disclaimers that consumers are liable to local laws. Seventy-five percent of sites provided specific cycle and stacking recommendations, 62% provided postcycle recovery information, but only one site offered information on non-AAS alternatives.

In conclusion, AAS, injectable testosterone, and other non-AAS therapies are readily available and remarkably easy to purchase on the Internet without a prescription. It is of paramount importance that clinicians are aware of this considerable public health problem given the detrimental physiologic effects including infertility and sexual dysfunction.

The availability and acquisition of modafinil on the internet / Suat Dursun, Matthew Dunn, Fiona H. McKay

• Drug and Alcohol Review 38 (2019) 6 (September), p. 699-702
• PMID: 31418943
• DOI: 10.1111/dar.12977

Abstract

Introduction and aims: Prescription medications are readily accessible on both the dark and surface web. This study focuses specifically on modafinil. Modafinal is a medication that is used to treat sleepiness due to a range of sleep disorders, but is also used off-label as a cognitive enhancer. This study aimed to evaluate surface websites which sold modafinil to Australia to provide an overview of and to document the characteristics of surface web retailers.

Design and methods: An online search to identify online retailers selling modafinil was performed using three search engines. Retailers were included if they sold modafinil to Australia, as verified through the purchasing process. Thirteen retailers were included in the final sample.

Results: Most retailers sold more than one product, with products being sold in tablet form the most common (88%). Retailers offered products of multiple strength, with the 200 mg product most common (51%). Most retailers included information on the side effects of the substances (77%), few listed any supporting evidence. Few listed information regarding legal status (24%). Most retailers used a number of features to indicate legitimacy.

Discussion and conclusion: This is the first study to document the characteristics of surface web retailers purporting to sell modafinil to Australia. Future studies may analyse purchased samples to identify potential counterfeit or poor-quality medications.

The barriers to illegal anabolic steroid use / Bruce Maycock, Peter Howat. - (Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 12 (2005) 4; p. 317-325).
- https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630500103622

Abstract

This paper summarizes the self-reported barriers that men overcame prior to initiating illegal anabolic steroid use, and the associated weakening of social controls that restrict anabolic steroid initiation. Data was collected via participant observation of 147 anabolic steroid users and previous users, 98 in-depth interviews with 42 anabolic steroid users and 49 in-depth interviews with 22 illegal dealers. Additional data came from interviews and eight focus groups with gym instructors, personal trainers and health workers, and the monitoring of policy changes and media reports relating to anabolic steroids.

The identified barriers included, coping with potential stigma, gathering of credible information and overcoming structural and resource barriers including developing the skills required to administer the drug and gaining a supply source. As these barriers were overcome there was a reduction in the social controls that inhibit the initiation of illegal anabolic steroid use. By understanding the interaction between potential users, social controls and these barriers it may be possible to strengthen the barriers and hence delay or halt the progression to anabolic steroid use. The paper suggests several demand- and harm-reduction strategies that may assist this process.

The Battle over the Osaka Ruling / Daniel Gandert. – (International Sports Law Journal (2012) 1-2 : p. 111-122)

Content:
1.) Introduction
2.) Background Relating to the Osaka Rule
3.) The Need for Strict, Uniform Anti-Doping Rules
4.) The Prescribed Penalties for Doping Under the World Anti-Doping Code
5.) CAS and the Principle of Proportionality
5.1.) The History of Proportionality
5.2.) The Legal Requirement for Proportionality
6.) Cases under the Osaka Rule
6.1.) Jessica Hardy’s Case
6.2.) LaShawn Merritt’s Case
6.3.) CAS Reaches Decision Regarding the Osaka Rule
6.4.) The Effect of the CAS Decision on the Osaka Rule
7.) Conclusion

The IOC’s Osaka Rule prohibited any athlete with a doping suspension of greater than six months from competing in the next Olympic Games, even for cases where the athlete’s suspension has already been completed. In October of 2011, the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) invalidated the Osaka Rule which prevented athletes who committed a doping offence inadvertently from receiving disproportionately harsh consequences relative to their violation.
The first part of this article will describe the background relating to the Osaka Rule. The second part article will describe the system in place to prevent doping. The third part will discuss the principle of proportionality.
First, the history of the principle in CAS jurisprudence will be discussed through a description of important cases. Second, the importance of proportionality will be explained. The fourth part will
describe the three cases dealing with the Osaka rule as well as the impact of these cases on the Olympic World.

The benefits and risks of testosterone replacement therapy: a review / Nazem Bassil, Saad Alkaade, John E. Morley. - (Therapeutics and clinical risk management 5 (2009) 3 (11 June); p. 427-448)

• PMID: 19707253
• PMCID: PMC2701485
• DOI: 10.2147/tcrm.s3025

Abstract

Increased longevity and population aging will increase the number of men with late onset hypogonadism. It is a common condition, but often underdiagnosed and undertreated. The indication of testosterone-replacement therapy (TRT) treatment requires the presence of low testosterone level, and symptoms and signs of hypogonadism. Although controversy remains regarding indications for testosterone supplementation in aging men due to lack of large-scale, long-term studies assessing the benefits and risks of testosterone-replacement therapy in men, reports indicate that TRT may produce a wide range of benefits for men with hypogonadism that include improvement in libido and sexual function, bone density, muscle mass, body composition, mood, erythropoiesis, cognition, quality of life and cardiovascular disease. Perhaps the most controversial area is the issue of risk, especially possible stimulation of prostate cancer by testosterone, even though no evidence to support this risk exists. Other possible risks include worsening symptoms of benign prostatic hypertrophy, liver toxicity, hyperviscosity, erythrocytosis, worsening untreated sleep apnea or severe heart failure. Despite this controversy, testosterone supplementation in the United States has increased substantially over the past several years. The physician should discuss with the patient the potential benefits and risks of TRT. The purpose of this review is to discuss what is known and not known regarding the benefits and risks of TRT.

The Cardiac Effects of Performance-Enhancing Medications: Caffeine vs. Anabolic Androgenic Steroids / Sanjay Sivalokanathan, Łukasz A. Małek, Aneil Malhotra. - (Diagnostics 11 (2021) 2 (17 February); p. 1-14)

• PMID: 33671206
• PMCID: PMC7922604
• DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11020324

Abstract

Several performance-enhancing or ergogenic drugs have been linked to both significant adverse cardiovascular effects and increased cardiovascular risk. Even with increased scrutiny on the governance of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) in professional sport and heightened awareness of the associated cardiovascular risk, there are some who are prepared to risk their use to gain competitive advantage. Caffeine is the most commonly consumed drug in the world and its ergogenic properties have been reported for decades. Thus, the removal of caffeine from the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) list of banned substances, in 2004, has naturally led to an exponential rise in its use amongst athletes. The response to caffeine is complex and influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Whilst the evidence may be equivocal, the ability of an athlete to train longer or at a greater power output cannot be overlooked. Furthermore, its impact on the myocardium remains unanswered. In contrast, anabolic androgenic steroids are recognised PEDs that improve athletic performance, increase muscle growth and suppress fatigue. Their use, however, comes at a cost, afflicting the individual with several side effects, including those that are detrimental to the cardiovascular system. This review addresses the effects of the two commonest PEDs, one legal, the other prohibited, and their respective effects on the heart, as well as the challenge in defining its long-term implications.

The Cardiac Toxicity of Anabolic Steroids / Mack Lee Sullivan, Charles M. Martinez, Paul Gennis, E. John Gallagher. - (Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 41 (1998) 1 (July/August); p. 1-15)

• PMID: 9717856
• DOI: 10.1016/s0033-0620(98)80019-4

Abstract

Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of testosterone that were developed as adjunct therapy for a variety of medical conditions. Today they are most commonly used to enhance athletic performance and muscular development. Both illicit and medically indicated anabolic steroid use have been temporally associated with many subsequent defects within each of the body systems. Testosterone is the preferred ligand of the human androgen receptor in the myocardium and directly modulates transcription, translation, and enzyme function. Consequent alterations of cellular pathology and organ physiology are similar to those seen with heart failure and cardiomyopathy. Hypertension, ventricular remodeling, myocardial ischemia, and sudden cardiac death have each been temporally and causally associated with anabolic steroid use in humans. These effects persist long after use has been discontinued and have significant impact on subsequent morbidity and mortality. The mechanisms of cardiac disease as a result of anabolic steroid use are discussed in this review.

The CAS AD Hoc Division at the XX Olympic Winter Games in Turin / Andreas K. Zagklis. – (International Sports Law Journal (2006) 3-4 : p. 47-57)

Content:
Introduction
1.) Summary of cases
1.1. CAS OG 06/001 [WADA v/ USADA, USBSF & Lund]
1.2. CAS OG 06/002 [Schuler v/ Swiss Olympic Association]
1.3. CAS JO 06/003 [Azzimani v/ Comité National Olympique Marocain]
1.4. CAS OG 06/004 [Deutscher Skiverband & Sachenbacher-Stehle v/ FIS]
1.5. CAS OG 06/005 & 06/007 [Abernathy v/ FIL]
1.6. CAS OG 06/006 [Canadian Olympic Committee v/ ISU]
1.7. CAS OG 06/008 [Dal Balcon v/ CONI & Federazione Italiana Sport Invernali]
1.8. CAS OG 06/009 [B. v/ IOC]
1.9. CAS OG 06/010 [Australian Olympic Committee v/ FIBT]
2.) Analysis
2.1.) Procedure
2.1.a.) Application
2.1.b.) Sole Arbitrator
2.1.c.) Hearing
2.1.d.) Award
2.2.) Legal Issues
2.2.1.) Jurisdiction
2.2.2.) Doping
2.2.3.) Selection and Qualification
Conclusion

The experience of three Summer Olympics and another three Winter Olympics of the CAS AHD has rewarded the Court with priceless know-how. In addition, the average of almost nine cases per Olympiad shows that the CAS AHD is now a conditio sine qua non for the successful organisation of the major sporting event in the world. Every two years the CAS attempts to succeed in its own
“triathlon” (fair - fast - free), which, above all, requires a unique balance between the speed of the procedures (24h) and the quality of the justice served (fairness in sport). The CAS AHD in Turin was another example of flexible procedures, always at the disposal of the Olympic Movement, and consistent jurisprudence. The road to Beijing is now open for legal debates on how the role of the CAS AHD can evolve in its second decade of life. In the author’s opinion, given the high stakes that the participation in the Olympics entails, the selection / qualification disputes will be the nucleus of the CAS AHD jurisprudence in the near future.