The methyl-5 alpha-dihydrotestosterones mesterolone and drostanolone; gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric characterization of the urinary metabolites / Douwe de Boer, E.G. de Jong, R.A. Maes, J.M. van Rossum. - (Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 42 (1992) 3-4 (May); p. 411-419)

• PMID: 1606052
• DOI: 10.1016/0960-0760(92)90146-a

Abstract

Before including the detection of the methyl-5 alpha-dihydrotestosterones mesterolone (1 alpha-methyl-17 beta-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-3-one) and drostanolone (2 alpha-methyl-17 beta-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-3-one) in doping control procedures, their urinary metabolites were characterized by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Several metabolites were found after enzymatic hydrolysis and conversion of the respective metabolites to their trimethylsilyl-enol-trimethylsilyl ether derivatives. The major metabolites of mesterolone and drostanolone were identified as 1 alpha-methyl-androsterone and 2 alpha-methyl-androsterone, respectively. The parent compounds and the intermediate 3 alpha,17 beta-dihydroxysteroid metabolites were detected as well. The reduction into the corresponding 3 beta-hydroxysteroids was a minor metabolic pathway. All metabolites were found to be conjugated to glucuronic acid.

The methyl-5 alpha-dihydrotestosterones mesterolone and drostanolone; gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric characterization of the urinary metabolites / Douwe de Boer, E.G. de Jong, R.A. Maes, J.M. van Rossum. - (Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 42 (1992) 3-4 (May); p. 411-419)

• PMID: 1606052
• DOI: 10.1016/0960-0760(92)90146-a

Abstract

Before including the detection of the methyl-5 alpha-dihydrotestosterones mesterolone (1 alpha-methyl-17 beta-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-3-one) and drostanolone (2 alpha-methyl-17 beta-hydroxy-5 alpha-androstan-3-one) in doping control procedures, their urinary metabolites were characterized by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Several metabolites were found after enzymatic hydrolysis and conversion of the respective metabolites to their trimethylsilyl-enol-trimethylsilyl ether derivatives. The major metabolites of mesterolone and drostanolone were identified as 1 alpha-methyl-androsterone and 2 alpha-methyl-androsterone, respectively. The parent compounds and the intermediate 3 alpha,17 beta-dihydroxysteroid metabolites were detected as well. The reduction into the corresponding 3 beta-hydroxysteroids was a minor metabolic pathway. All metabolites were found to be conjugated to glucuronic acid.

The moral disengagement in doping scale / Maria Kavussanu, Antonis Hatzigeorgiadis, Anne-Marie Elbe, Christopher Ring. - (Psychology of Sport and Exercise 24 (2016) May; p. 188-198)

• DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.02.003

Abstract

Statement of problem

The use of banned substances to enhance performance occurs in sport. Therefore, developing valid and reliable instruments that can predict likelihood to use banned substances is important.

Method

We conducted three studies. In Study 1, football players (N = 506) and athletes from a variety of team sports (N = 398) completed the Moral Disengagement in Doping Scale (MDDS). In Study 2, team sport athletes (N = 232) completed the MDDS and questionnaires measuring moral disengagement in sport, doping attitudes, moral identity, antisocial sport behavior, situational doping temptation, and task and ego goal orientations. A week later, a subsample (n = 102) completed the MDDS and indicated their likelihood to use a banned substance in a hypothetical situation. In Study 3, athletes (N = 201) from a variety of individual sports completed the MDDS and indicated their likelihood to use a banned substance in a hypothetical situation.

Results

The results of Study 1 showed that a one-factor model fitted the data well, and the scale had measurement invariance across males and females. In Study 2, we provided evidence for convergent, concurrent, discriminant, and predictive validity, as well as test-rest reliability, of the scale. In Study 3, doping moral disengagement was positively related with reported likelihood and temptation to use a banned substance. The scale exhibited very good internal consistency across the three studies.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the MDDS can be used to measure moral disengagement in doping in team and individual sports.

The motives for doping drug use in nonprofessional drug use in nonprofessional athletes  and methods of prevention / Petar Mitić, Dragan Radovanović. - (Facta Universitatis - Physical Education and Sport 9 (2011) 11; p. 203-212)

Doping is commonly associated with proffesional sport. Unfortunately, doping is not only used by athletes competing ’for medals,’ it is also common in various recreational sports activities. Studies carried out in different countries reveal the necessity of preventive action and the reduction of the incidence of doping drug use in this group of athletes. The clear identification of the motives in nonprofessional athletes for using these dangerous substances is the core of the problem and the sole adequate basis fordeveloping operative preventive plans.

Results obtained from various relevant studies have been presented. They point out thatthe athlete’s morality, personality characteristics, reference groups and the individuals themselves play vital roles in the process of starting to use doping drugs. Based on these findings, authors propose a comprehensive plan for the prevention and reduction of theincidence for doping drug use among nonprofessional athletes. The plan is based on: informative-educative work on the effect of doping on health, optimal nutrition planning, supplementation planning, and individual training system planning, all in accordance with the personality features, sports discipline and goals that a recreational athlete sets for himself. It is also of vital importance to work on improving the psychosocialcharacteristics of an individual.

The Muscular Ideal - psychological, social, and medical perspectives / J. Kevin Thompson, Guy Cafri. - American Psychological Association, 2007

• ISBN: 9781591477921

The musculair ideal is increasingly becoming the preferred body type for men, adolescent boys, and even some women. Why is this body type the new ideal, and how did it develop? Why are some people driven to achieve heightened muscularity, and how do they do it? What risks to physical and mental health are involved when extreme behaviors are undertaken in the pursuit of the muscular ideal?

This edited book draws on new research to provide an overview of the muscular ideal, including historical and present-day sociological trends, assesment and measurement, and clinical presentation of disorders such as muscle dysmorphia. Chapters also cover related issues as steroid use, repeated cosmetic surgery, and prevention.

The target audience includes sport and health psychologists; and graduate students in psychology, sociology, gender roles, and health and sport science courses.

The Need for WADA to Address Confidentiality Leaks in Drug Testing in Olympic Sports – The Ian Thorpe Situation / John T. Wendt. – (International Sports Law Journal (2010) 3-4 : p. 47-54)

Content:
- Introduction
- Thorpe’s Accomplishments
- Thorpe as an Anti-Doping Crusader
- Ressiot and l’Equipe
- Reactions to the Leak and Accusation
- WADA and Confidentiality
- Thorpe and Ressiot
- FINA, ASADA and Thorpe
- Thorpe Sues Ressiot and L’Equipe
- Reforms and Need for Confidentiality
- Changes to the World Anti-Doping Code
- Conclusion
- References

Ian Thorpe is an Australian successful elite level swimmers.
Thorpe has also been one of the leading opponents of doping.
He was a founding athlete-member of the World Anti-Doping
Association’s (WADA) “Athlete’s Passport” Program and was one of the first to provide blood samples to be frozen for future testing in accordance with WADA’s new testing procedures (World Anti-
Doping Code Annual Report, 2002). But, that reputation was tarnished when someone leaked confidential information to Damien Ressiot, a journalist for the French newspaper, L’Equipe, who accused Thorpe of committing a doping offense. For Ian Thorpe, there were two volatile issues − first, the truth of the allegations, and second the breach of confidentiality of his personal records.

Confidentiality is at the heart of any drug testing program. Names should not be revealed, unless it is firmly and legally established that a doping offense has been committed. A breach of confidentiality and media leaks undermine the entire system. It is essential that there is confidentiality throughout the whole process until there is a finding that an individual has in fact committed a doping offense. This comment looks at the breach of confidentiality of Ian Thorpe’s records, and the need for WADA to act to remedy the problem.

Reichel C. The overlooked difference between human endogenous and recombinant erythropoietins and its implication for sports drug testing and pharmaceutical drug design. Drug Test Anal. 2011 Nov-Dec;3(11-12):883-91. doi: 10.1002/dta.388. Epub 2011 Dec 2.

The pharmaceuticalisation of 'healthy' ageing : Testosterone enhancement for longevity / Matthew Dunn, Kyle J.D. Mulrooney, Cynthia Forlini, Katinka van de Ven, Mair Underwood

• International Journal of Drug Policy (2021) 103159 (12 February)
• PMID: 33583680
• DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103159

Abstract

The United Nations estimates that the world's population will reach 8.5 billion by 2030, and the populations of most countries are expected to grow older. This is case for many developed countries, including Australia, the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States of America, and member states of the European Union. Older cohorts will comprise a larger proportion of overall populations, driven in part by our increases in life expectancy. An ageing population poses challenges for governments; notably, older people tend to have multiple, chronic health conditions which can place a burden of health budgets. At the same time, we are witnessing a shift in how we respond to the health needs of our populations, with global drug policy acknowledging that some substances are contributing to increased morbidity and mortality (e.g. opioids) while others may have beneficial therapeutic effects (e.g. psylocibin, cannabis). There is general agreement that as men age their levels of testosterone decrease, and there is some evidence to suggest that there have been population-level declines in testosterone which are not associated with age. Anecdotally, testosterone is accessed by men seeking to self-medicate in the belief that they are experiencing low testosterone levels. There has also been a rise in anti-ageing clinics in the United States, providing access to testosterone replacement therapy (TRT). The non-medical use of testosterone can result in a number of adverse health events, including complications from the use of black market or underground products. Placing testosterone under a new prescribing regime may address some of these concerns, but is society ready for this change, and if so, what would this regime look like? This paper will explore the issue of how society responds to enhancement for longevity, or how we increasingly use pharmaceuticals to address and prevent illness, with a specific focus on testosterone and testosterone deficiency.

Choong K, Lakshman KM, Bhasin S. The physiological and pharmacological basis for the ergogenic effects of androgens in elite sports. Asian J Androl. 2008 May;10(3):351-63.

The physiology of growth hormone and sport / W. Matthew Widdowson, Marie-Louise Healy, Peter H. Sönksen, James Gibney. - (Growth Hormone & IGF Research 19 (2009) 4 (August); p. 308-319)

• PMID: 19505835
• DOI: 10.1016/j.ghir.2009.04.023

Abstract

The growth hormone (GH)/ insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) axis exerts short-and long-term metabolic effects that are potentially important during exercise. Exercise is a potent stimulus to GH release and there is some evidence that the acute increase in GH is important in regulating substrate metabolism post-exercise. Regular exercise also increases 24-hour GH secretion rates, which potentially contributes to the physiologic changes induced by training. The effects of GH replacement in GH-deficient adults provide a useful model with which to study the effects of the more long-term effects of the GH/ IGF-I axis. There is convincing evidence that GH replacement increases exercise capacity. Measures of exercise performance including maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and ventilatory threshold (VeT) are impaired in GH deficiency and improved by GH replacement, probably through some combination of increased oxygen delivery to exercising muscle, increased fatty acid availability with glycogen sparing, increased muscle strength, improved body composition and improved thermoregulation. Administration of supraphysiologic doses of GH to athletes increases fatty acid availability and reduces oxidative protein loss particularly during exercise, and increases lean body mass. It is not known whether these effects translate to improved athletic performance, although recombinant human GH is known to be widely abused in sport. The model of acromegaly provides evidence that long-term GH excess does not result in improved performance but it is possible that a "window" exists in which the protein anabolic effects of supraphysiologic GH might be advantageous.