The analysis of trenbolone and the human urinary metabolites of trenbolone acetate by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry / Douwe de Boer, M.E. Gainza Bernal, R.D. van Ooyen, R.A. Maes. - (Biological Mass Spectromety 20 (1991) 8 (August); p. 459-466)

• PMID: 1768702
• DOI: 10.1002/bms.1200200805

Abstract

The electron impact mass spectrometric properties of trimethylsilyl ether and fluoroacyl ester derivatives of trenbolone, combined or not combined with a methoxime group, are presented. Some derivatization problems were observed and were due to the formation of enol derivatives at the 3C-position in several tautomeric forms, which in their turn were not stable and lost two or four hydrogens under the conditions studied. The enolization could be minimized by carefully selecting the reaction conditions or could be prevented by the introduction of a methoxime group at the 3C-position. The limits of detection and identification of the methoxime heptafluorobutyryl ester and the methoxime trimethylsilyl ether derivative of trenbolone were determined using a mass selective detector in the electron impact mode and a triple-stage quadrupole in the methane positive chemical ionization mode. Selected reaction monitoring in tandem mass spectrometry did not improve the limit of detection, but because of the gain in selectivity did improve the limit of identification. The glucuronides of trenbolone and epitrenbolone could be identified in three urine specimens out of 200 samples in routine doping control.

The analytical chemistry of drug monitoring in athletes / L.D. Bowers. – (Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry (2009) 2 (July) : p. 485-507)

• doi: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-060908-15515

Content:

1.) Introduction
2.) The World Anti-Doping Agency
2.1.) The Prohibited List: International Standaard
2.2.) The International Standard for Laboratories
3.) Analytical challenges and advances
3.1.) Anabolic Agents
3.1.1.) Exogenous anabolic agents
3.1.2.) Endogenous anabolic steroids
3.2.) Proteins and Peptides
3.2.1.) Human chorionic gonadotropin
3.2.2.) Insulin
3.2.3.) Recombinant human growth hormone
3.2.4.) Recombinant erythropoieting and mimetics
3.3.) Enhancement of Oxygen Transport : Allogenic (Homologous) Blood Transfusion

The detection and deterrence of the abuse of performance-enhancing drugs in sport are important to maintaining a level playing field among athletes and to decreasing the risk to athletes’ health. The World Anti-Doping Program consists of six documents, three of which play a role in analytical development: The World Anti-Doping Code, The List of Prohibited Substances and Methods, and The International Standard for Laboratories. Among the classes of prohibited substances, three have given rise to the most recent analytical developments in the field: anabolic agents; peptide and protein hormones; and methods to increase oxygen delivery to the tissues, including recombinant erythropoietin. Methods for anabolic agents, including designer steroids, have been enhanced through the use of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/combustion/isotope-ratio mass spectrometry. Protein and peptide identification and quantification have benefited from advances in liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Incorporation of techniques such as flow cytometry and isoelectric focusing have supported the detection of blood doping.

The application of carbon isotope ratio mass spectrometry to doping control / Adam T. Cawley, Ulrich Flenker. - (Journal of Mass Spectrometry 43 (2008) 7 (July); p. 854-864)

• PMID: 18523972
• DOI: 10.1002/jms.1437

Abstract

The administration of synthetic steroid copies is one of the most important issues facing sports. Doping control laboratories accredited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) require methods of analysis that allow endogenous steroids to be distinguished from their synthetic analogs in urine. The ability to measure isotope distribution at natural abundance with high accuracy and precision has increased the application of Gas Chromatography-Combustion-Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) to doping control in recent years. GC-C-IRMS is capable of measuring the carbon isotope ratio (delta(13)C) of urinary steroids and confirm their synthetic origin based on the abnormal (13)C content. This tutorial describes some of the complexities encountered by obtaining valid delta(13)C measurements from GC-C-IRMS and the need for careful interpretation of all relevant information concerning an individual's metabolism in order to make an informed decision with respect to a doping violation.

The Application of Criminal Law on Doping Infractions and the ‘Whereabouts Information’ Rule: State Regulation v Self-Regulation / Gregory Ioannidis. – (International Sports Law Journal (2010) 1-2 : p. 14-25)

Content:

• Introduction
• The historical framework
• The theoretical framework
  • The consequences for failing to submit ‘Whereabouts Information’ and/of missing tests
  • The burden of proof in doping trials
• The application of criminal law on doping infractions: can a coercive response be justified?
  • Main justification
  • The Public Interest Theory
  • The nature of anti-doping regulatory mechanisms
  • The application of criminal law on doping infractions – a jurisprudential justification
  • The Public Interest Theory and the Legal Enforcement of Morality
• Conclusion

The “Whereabouts Information” (WIR) is part of the “non-analytical finding” cases, which do not require a finding of a positive result of an anti-doping test for the application of sanctions on anti-doping rules violations. Instead, they require that the athlete fail to submit whereabouts information and/or fail to be present, for an anti-doping test, during the chosen time and place of his/her whereabouts information. The WIR, therefore, is a prerequisite for a “missed test”; before the sanction of an anti-doping violation could be applied on an athlete and during the analysis the reader must always keep the two together.
The consequences, for an athlete, of failing to adopt, apply and follow the WIR are immense. When an athlete fails to submit up to dated whereabouts information or is not where his information states he should be and an officer attempts to test the athlete unsuccessfully, the athlete, according to the World Anti-Doping Code, is deemed to have missed the test and he would be the subject of an evaluation of a missed test. Three missed tests in a consecutive period of eighteen months constitute an anti-doping violation, which carries a sanction of ineligibility from all competitions.

It is becoming increasing clear that there is dissatisfaction amongst many commentators and athletes, that the way anti-doping is organized and regulated today, is unfair and unjust and it lacks transparency and efficiency. It is also evident from decided doping cases, that not always the athletes’ rights are observed. This argument serves as a catalyst for the introduction of criminal law on doping infractions.
Before a State invokes such powerful machinery, however, a framework of co-operation and education must first be established.

The Athlete Biological Passport / Pierre-Edouard Sottas, Neil Robinson, Olivier Rabin, Martial Saugy. - (Clinical Chemistry 57 (2011) 7 (July) ; p. 969–976)

• PMID: 21596947
• DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2011.162271

Abstract:

BACKGROUND:
In elite sports, the growing availability of doping substances identical to those naturally produced by the human body seriously limits the ability of drug-testing regimes to ensure fairness and protection of health.

CONTENT:
The Athlete Biological Passport (ABP), the new paradigm in testing based on the personalized monitoring of biomarkers of doping, offers the enormous advantage of being independent of this endless pharmaceutical race. Doping triggers physiological changes that provide physiological enhancements. In the same way that disease-related biomarkers are invaluable tools that assist physicians in the diagnosis of pathology, specifically selected biomarkers can be used to detect doping.

SUMMARY:
The ABP is a new testing paradigm with immense potential value in the current climate of rapid advancement in biomarker discovery. In addition to its original aim of providing proof of a doping offense, the ABP can also serve as a platform for a Rule of Sport, with the presentation before competition of the ABP to objectively demonstrate that the athlete will participate in a healthy physiological condition that is unaltered by performance-enhancing drugs. Finally, the decision-support system used today for the biological monitoring of world top-level athletes can also be advantageously transferred to other areas of clinical practice to reach the goal of personalized medicine.

The athletic characteristics of Olympic sports to assist anti-doping strategies / Gregory Hayward, Lorenzo Gaborini, David Sims, Yorck Olaf Schumacher, Grégoire P. Millet, Damien Rhumorbarbe, Ronan Coquet, Neil Robinson

• Drug Testing and Analysis 14 (2022) 9 (September), p. 1599-1613
• PMID: 35732071
• DOI: 10.1002/dta.3329

Abstract

The determinants of success in Olympic Games competition are specific to the athletic demands of the sporting event. A global evaluation to quantify the athletic demands across the spectrum of the Olympic Games sport events has not previously been conducted. Thus far, the interpretation and the comparison of sport physiological characteristics within anti-doping organisations (ADOs) risk assessments remains subjective without a standardised framework. Despite its subjective assessment, this information is a key component of any anti-doping programme. Sport characteristics inevitably influence the type of substances and/or methods used for doping purposes and should be captured through a comprehensive analysis. Seven applied sport scientists independently conducted an assessment to quantify the athletic demands across six preselected athletic variables. A principal component analysis was performed on the results of the panel's quantitative assessment for 160 Olympic sport events. Sport events were clustered using the Hierarchical Density Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (HDBSCAN) algorithm. The HDBSCAN identified 19 independent cluster groups; 36 sport events remained statistically unassigned to a cluster group representing unique and event-specific athletic demands. This investigation provides guidance to the anti-doping community to assist in the development of the sport specific physiology component of the risk assessment for Olympic Games disciplines. The dominant athletic characteristics to excel in each of these individual events will highlight areas of how athletes may strive to gain a competitive advantage through doping strategies, and inform the development of an effective and proportionate allocation of testing resources.

Susan J. Grossman, MSW, LCSW, Joe Gieck, EdD, ATC, PT, Alan Freedman, MEd, Wei Li Fang, PhD
Journal of Athletic Training Volume 28 * Number 2 * 1993

Alcohol and other drug (AOD) abuse affects every sector of society, and student-athletes are no exception. Because many factors affecting athletes do not affect other students, athletic departments commonly approach prevention through AOD education. Different educational approaches are descriibed in this article, particularly the Athletic Prevention Programming and Leadership Education (APPLE) model.

Project APPLE is designed to enable an athletic department to systematically analyze its AOD prevention in seven areas: recruitment practices, expectations and attitudes, education and AOD programs, polic ies, drug testing, discipline, and referral and counseling. Because athletic trainers often are involved in this process, this article should help them to design more effective AOD programs.

The Availability and Acquisition of Illicit Anabolic Androgenic Steroids and Testosterone Preparations on the Internet / J. Abram McBride, Culley C. Carson, Robert M. Coward. - (American journal of men's health 12 (2018) 5 (1 September) ; p. 1352-1357).
- PMID: 27170675.
- PMCID: PMC6142130.
- DOI: 10.1177/1557988316648704
Article first published online: May 11, 2016; Issue published: September 1, 2018

Abstract:

The lifetime prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use in the United States is over 1%. Recent reports have suggested AAS can easily be obtained over the Internet without a prescription, but this has been poorly studied. This study focused on determining the availability and ease of purchase for AAS, testosterone, and other non-AAS therapies on the Internet from the perspective of a typical consumer.

A Google search was performed and the top-ranking sites offering AAS for sale were individually evaluated for selection of AAS offered, the purchasing process, and additional consumer information to support AAS use. The current results revealed that 87% of sites offered commonly used forms of AAS, injectable testosterone, and non-AAS hormone therapies. Seventy-five percent offered at least one postcycle recovery agent and 62% offered at least one erectile dysfunction medication. No site required a prescription for purchase of any substance, 75% accepted common forms of payment including credit card, and all sites were supplied by unregulated international pharmacies providing shipment to home addresses with disclaimers that consumers are liable to local laws. Seventy-five percent of sites provided specific cycle and stacking recommendations, 62% provided postcycle recovery information, but only one site offered information on non-AAS alternatives.

In conclusion, AAS, injectable testosterone, and other non-AAS therapies are readily available and remarkably easy to purchase on the Internet without a prescription. It is of paramount importance that clinicians are aware of this considerable public health problem given the detrimental physiologic effects including infertility and sexual dysfunction.

The availability and acquisition of modafinil on the internet / Suat Dursun, Matthew Dunn, Fiona H. McKay

• Drug and Alcohol Review 38 (2019) 6 (September), p. 699-702
• PMID: 31418943
• DOI: 10.1111/dar.12977

Abstract

Introduction and aims: Prescription medications are readily accessible on both the dark and surface web. This study focuses specifically on modafinil. Modafinal is a medication that is used to treat sleepiness due to a range of sleep disorders, but is also used off-label as a cognitive enhancer. This study aimed to evaluate surface websites which sold modafinil to Australia to provide an overview of and to document the characteristics of surface web retailers.

Design and methods: An online search to identify online retailers selling modafinil was performed using three search engines. Retailers were included if they sold modafinil to Australia, as verified through the purchasing process. Thirteen retailers were included in the final sample.

Results: Most retailers sold more than one product, with products being sold in tablet form the most common (88%). Retailers offered products of multiple strength, with the 200 mg product most common (51%). Most retailers included information on the side effects of the substances (77%), few listed any supporting evidence. Few listed information regarding legal status (24%). Most retailers used a number of features to indicate legitimacy.

Discussion and conclusion: This is the first study to document the characteristics of surface web retailers purporting to sell modafinil to Australia. Future studies may analyse purchased samples to identify potential counterfeit or poor-quality medications.

The barriers to illegal anabolic steroid use / Bruce Maycock, Peter Howat. - (Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy 12 (2005) 4; p. 317-325).
- https://doi.org/10.1080/09687630500103622

Abstract

This paper summarizes the self-reported barriers that men overcame prior to initiating illegal anabolic steroid use, and the associated weakening of social controls that restrict anabolic steroid initiation. Data was collected via participant observation of 147 anabolic steroid users and previous users, 98 in-depth interviews with 42 anabolic steroid users and 49 in-depth interviews with 22 illegal dealers. Additional data came from interviews and eight focus groups with gym instructors, personal trainers and health workers, and the monitoring of policy changes and media reports relating to anabolic steroids.

The identified barriers included, coping with potential stigma, gathering of credible information and overcoming structural and resource barriers including developing the skills required to administer the drug and gaining a supply source. As these barriers were overcome there was a reduction in the social controls that inhibit the initiation of illegal anabolic steroid use. By understanding the interaction between potential users, social controls and these barriers it may be possible to strengthen the barriers and hence delay or halt the progression to anabolic steroid use. The paper suggests several demand- and harm-reduction strategies that may assist this process.